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Silahlı Çatışmalarda Kültürel Varlıkların Korunması Hukuki Rejiminde Bir İstisna Olarak "Askeri Gereklilik": Antlaşmalarla Getirilen Düzenlemeler

Yıl 2017, Cilt: 23 Sayı: 1, 89 - 158, 15.05.2017

Öz

    Silahlı çatışmalarda kültürel varlıkların yok edilmesini meşru gösteren bir araç olarak askeri gereklilik istisnası ileri sürülmektedir. 1863 tarihli Cephedeki Birleşik Devletler Hükümet Orduları için Talimatlar, 1899 - 1907 tarihli Lahey Düzenlemeleri, 1935 tarihli Sanatsal ve Bilimsel Kurumların ve Tarihi Anıtların Korunmasına Dair Sözleşme, 1949 tarihli Cenevre Sözleşmeleri ve 1977 tarihli I No.lu Ek Protokolü, 1954 tarihli Silahlı Çatışmalarda Kültürel Varlıkların Korunması Sözleşmesi ve Silahlı Çatışmalarda Kültürel Varlıkların Korunmasına İlişkin 1954 tarihli Lahey Sözleşmesi’nin İkinci Protokolü’nde kültürel varlıkların korunmasına yönelik dolaylı ya da doğrudan hükümlere yer verilmektedir. Devletlerin ısrarları nedeniyle uluslararası hukukun bir ilkesi olan askeri gereklilik istisnasına sözleşmelerde yer verilmesinin önüne geçilememektedir.

    Bu çalışmada öncelikle silahlı çatışmalardan kültürel varlıkların ne şekilde etkilendiği ele alınmaktadır. Ardından askeri gereklilik doktrininin ne olduğu ve ne şekilde ortaya çıktığından bahsedilmektedir. Uluslararası hukukta kültürel varlıkların korunmasına ilişkin başlıca düzenlemelere değinilerek askeri gereklilik ilkesinin bu düzenlemeler doğrultusunda Devletler tarafından ne şekilde yorumlanabileceği incelenmeye çalışılmıştır.

ABSTRACT

    The principle of military necessity, which is a well'established principle of international humanitarian law, has been long defended as a justification of the destruction of cultural property in the times of armed conflict. Although, several provisions that provide protection of cultural property can be found in Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field 1863, Hague Conventions of 1899-1907, Geneva Conventions 1949 and Additional Protocol I 1977, Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict 1954 and Second Protocol to the Hague Convention of 1954 for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict 1999 , States still insist to champion the principle of military necessity at the expense of the protection of cultural property.

    In this article, first, the impact of armed conflicts on cultural properties is taken into consideration. Second, the article provides an analysis of the doctrine of military necessity and its historical background in relation to the protection of cultural property. Finally, the primary instruments that relate to the protection of cultural property are evaluated. Thus, it is clarified in the article how States should interpret the doctrine of military necessity without hindering the cultural property protection.

Kaynakça

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Yıl 2017, Cilt: 23 Sayı: 1, 89 - 158, 15.05.2017

Öz

Kaynakça

  • ABTAHI Hirad, The Protection of Cultural Property in Times of Armed Conflict: The Practice of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, The Harvard Human Rights Journal, Vol.14, Spring, 2001, ss.1-32.
  • ADLER G.J., Targets in War: Legal Considerations. in Falk, Vol.3, 1968 - 1972 (q.u.1), ss. 281-326.
  • ALCALA Ronald T.P., Babylon Revisited: Reestablishing a Corps of Specialists for the Protection of Cultural Property in Armed Conflict, Harvard National Security Journal, Vol. 6, 2015. ss.206-254.
  • BERGER Maj Joseph B. III, Maj Derek Grimes, Maj Eric T. Jensen, Operational Law Handbook Vol.20, 2004, http://www.fas.org/irp/doddir/army/law2004.pdf (e.t.30.11.2016).
  • BIROV Victoria A., Prize or Plunder?: The Pillage of Works of Art and the Interna- tional Law of War, Vol.30, 1998, ss.201-249.
  • BOGDANOS Matthew, The Casualties of War: The Truth About the Iraq Muse- um, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol.109, No.3, 2005, ss.477-536.
  • BOYLAN Patrick J., Review of the Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict (The Hague Convention of 1954), UNESCO, CLT-9j/Wh/12, 1993.
  • BUGNION François, The Origins and Development of the Legal Protection of Cultural Property in The Event of Armed Conflict, 50th Anniversary of the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Ar- med Conflict, 2004, https://www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/misc/65shtj. htm (e.t. 08.09.2015).
  • BUZA Laszlo, The State of Necessity in International Law, Vol:1, Acta Juridica, The State of Necessity in International Law, Vol.1, 1959, ss.205-228.
  • CAGGIANO Mark J. T. , The Legitimacy of Environmental Destruction in Modern Warfare: Customary Substance Over Conventional Form, Boston College Envi- ronmental Affairs Law Review, Vol.20, Spring, 1993, ss.478-506.
  • CARNAHAN Burrus M., Lincoln, Lieber and The Laws of War: The Origıns and Limits of The Principle of Military Necessity, American Journal of International Law, Vol.92, 1998, ss.212-231.
  • CHADHA Neeru, Protection of Cultural Property During Armed Conflict: Recent Developments, ISIL Year Book of International Humanitarian and Refugee Law, Vol. 12, 2001, http://www.worldlii.org/int/journals/ISILYBIHRL/2001/12.html (e.t.19.12.2015).
  • CORN Geoffrey S., Snipers in the Minaret-What Is the Rule?, The Law of War and the Protection of Cultural Property: A Complex Equation, The Army Lawyer, Vol.386, 2005, ss.28-40.
  • CUNNING Andrea, The Safeguarding of Cultural Property in Times of War & Pea- ce, Tulsa Journal of Comparative & International Law, Vol.11, 2003, ss.210-238.
  • DEHN John C., The Commander-In-Chief and The Necessities of War: A Concep- tual Framework, Temple Law Review, Vol.83, Spring, 2011, ss.600-664.
  • DESCH Thomas, Problems in the Implementation of the Convention from the Perspective of International Law, Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict - A Challenge in Peace Support Operations, Edited: Edwin R. Micewski Gerhard Sladek, Vienna, 2002, ss.1-9.
  • DETLING Karen J., Eternal Silence: The Destruction of Cultural Property in Yu- goslavia, The Maryland Journal of International Law & Trade, Vol.17, 1993, ss.40-75.
  • DRAPER G.I.A.D., Military Necessity and Humanitarian Imperatives, Military Law and Law of War Review, Vol.12, 1973, ss.129-142.
  • EAGEN Sarah, Preserving Cultural Property: Our Public Duty: A Look at How and Why We Must Create International Laws That Support International Action, Pace International Law Review, Vol.13, 2001, ss.407-448.
  • FORREST Craig J.S., The Doctrine of Military Necessity and The Protection of Cultural Property During Armed Conflicts, California Western International Law Journal, Vol. 37, No. 2, 2007, ss.177-219.
  • GASSER Hans-Peter, For Better Protection of the Natural Environment in Armed Conflict: A Proposal for Action, The American Journal of International Law, Vol. 89, No. 3, 1995, ss.637-644.
  • GERSTENBLITH Patty, Archaeology in the Context of War: Legal Frameworks for Protecting Cultural Heritage during Armed Conflict, Archaeologies: Journal of the World Archaeological Congress, Vol.5, No.1, 2009, ss.18-31.
  • GERSTENBLITH Patty, From Bamiyan to Baghdad: Warfare and the Preservation of Cultural Heritage at the Beginning of the 21st Century, Georgetown Journal of International Law, Vol.37, Winter, 2006, ss.245-351.
  • GERSTENBLITH Patty, The Destruction of Cultural Heritage: A Crime Against Property or a Crime Against People?, The John Marshall Law School Review of Intellectual Property Law, Vol.15, 2016, ss.336-393.
  • GÜNEYSU Gökhan, Çevrenin Silahlı Çatışmalar Esnasında Korunması, Adalet Yay., Ankara, 2014.
  • GÜNEYSU Gökhan, Orantılılık İlkesi ve Uluslararası İnsancıl Hukuk, TAAD, Yıl.4, Sayı.14, 2013, ss.451-465.
  • HAMEL Phillipe, The 1999 Protocol to the Convention on Protection of Cultu- ral Property in Armed Conflict, Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict - A Challenge in Peace Support Operations, Ed. Edwin R. Micewski and Gerhard Sladek, Vienna, 2002, ss.97-98.
  • HAQUE Adil Ahmad, Cultural Property Under the Law of Armed Conflict, Cultu- ral Property Under the Law of Armed Conflict, Stockholm Center for the Ethics of War and Peace, http://stockholmcentre.org/cultural-property-under-the-law- of-armed-conflic/ (06.09.2015).
  • HENCKAERTS Jean-Marie and Louise Doswald-Beck, Customary Internatio- nal Humanitarian Law, International Committee of The Red Cross, Cambridge University Press, 2005.
  • HENCKAERTS Jean-Marie, New Rules For The Protection Of Cultural Property In Armed Conflict, International Review of the Red Cross, No. 835, 1999, https:// www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/misc/57jq37.htm (09.09.2015).
  • HILL-CAWTHORNE Lawrence, The Role of Necessity in International Humani- tarian and Human Rights Law, Israel Law Review, Vol. 47, No.2, 2014, ss.225- 251.
  • HLADIK Jan, Diplomatic Conference on the Second Protocol to the Hague Con- vention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, International Journal of Cultural Property The Hague, Netherlands, Vol. 8, No. 2, 15-26 March 1999, ss.526-529.
  • HORTON Scott, Kriegsraison or Military Necessity? The Bush Administration’s Wilhelmine Attitude Towards the Conduct of War, Fordham International Law Journal, Vol.30, 2007, ss.575-598.
  • HOWE Zoe, Can the 1954 Hague Convention Apply to Non-state Actors?: A Study of Iraq and Libya, Texas Internatıonal Law Journal, Vol. 47, Issue 2, 2013, ss.403-425
  • HUBER M., Die krigsrechtlichen Vertreige and die Kriegaraison. Zeitschrift fur Völkerrecht. Vol. VII. 1913’den aktaran Laszlo Buza, The State of Necessity in International Law, 1 Acta Juridica, Vol.1, 1959.
  • JAWORSKI Eric, “Military Necessity” and “Civilian Immunity”: Where is the Ba- lance?, Chinese Journal International Law, Vol.2, 2003, ss.175-206.
  • JENSEN Eric Talbot, The International Law of Environmental Warfare: Active and Passive Damage During Armed Conflict, Vanderbilt Journal of Transnatio- nal Law, Vol.38, January, 2005, ss.145-185.
  • JOHNSON John C., Under New Management: The Obligation to Protect Cultural Property During Military Occupation, Military Law Review, Vol. 190/191, 20062007, ss.111-152.
  • KEANE David, The Failure to Protect Cultural Property in Wartime, Journal of Art and Entertainment Law, Vo.14, 2004, ss.1-38.
  • KOSSIAKOFF Megan, The Art of War: The Protection of Cultural Property Du- ring The “Siege” of Sarajevo (1992-95), Journal of Art and Entertainment Law, Vol.14, 2004, ss.108-169.
  • LIPPMAN Matthew, Art and Ideology in the Third Reich: The Protection of Cul- tural Property and the Humanitarian Law of War, Penn State International Law Review, Vol.17, 1998, ss.1-97.
  • MCCOUBREY Hilaire, The Nature of the Modern Doctrine of Military Necessity, Vol.30, 1991, ss.217-240.
  • MERRYMAN John Henry, Cultural Property Internationalism, International Journal of Cultural Property, Vol.12, 2005, ss.11-39.
  • MERRYMAN John Henry, Two Ways Of Thinking About Cultural Property, The American Journal of International Law, Vol. 80, No. 4, October 1986, ss. 831853.
  • MILLIGAN Ashlyn, Targeting Cultural Property: The Role of in International Law, Journal of Public and International Affairs, 2008, ss.91-106, https://www. princeton.edu/jpia/past-issues-1/2007/Letter.pdf (e.t.30.11.2016).
  • O’CONNELL Mary Ellen, Occupation Failures and the Legality of Armed Conflict: The Case of Iraqi Cultural Property, Ohio State University Moritz College of Law, Working Paper No.6, 2004, ss.1-31.
  • O’KEEFE Roger, The Protection of Cultural Property in Armed Conflict, Amicus Curiae, Issue 71, Institute of Advanced Legal Studies, Autumn 2007, ss.2-6.
  • O’KEEFE Roger, The Protection of Cultural Property in Armed Conflict, Cambrid- ge University Press, 2006.
  • OPPENHEIM Lassa, International Law, A Treatise, 2 vols., 2nd edn (London:Longmans, Green, 1912), vol.II.’den aktaran Roger O’Keefe, The Protection of Cultural Property in Armed Conflict, Cambridge University Press, 2006.
  • ÖZEL Sibel, Uluslararası Alanda Kültür Varlıklarının Korunması, Alkım Yay., İstanbul, 1998.
  • PETERSEN Kirstin E., Cultural Apocalypse Now: The Loss of the Iraq Museum and a New Proposal for the Wartime Protection of Museums, Minnesota Journal of International Law, Vol.16, Winter, 2007, ss.162-191.
  • PICTET Jean, Development and Principles of International Humanitarian Law, Martinus Nijhoff, 1985.
  • POSNER Eric A., International Protection of Cultural Property: Some Skeptical Obsevations, Public Law and Legal Theory Working Paper No. 141, Chicago, 2006, ss.1-20.
  • RAGONE Peter A., The Applicability of Military Necessity in the Nuclear Age, International Law and Politics, Vol.16, 1984, ss.701-713.
  • SANDHOLTZ Wayne, The Iraqi National Museum and International Law: A Duty to Protect, Columbia Journal of Transnational Law, Vol.44, 2005, ss.185-240.
  • SANDOZ Yves, Christophe Swinarski and Bruno Zimmerman (eds.), Commentary on the Additional Protocols of 8 June 1977 to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 , ICRC/Martinus Nijhoff, Dordrecht/Geneva, 1987.
  • SARIBEYOĞLU Meltem, Kitle İmha Silahlarının Kullanımının Yasaklanmasına ilişkin Uluslararası Düzenlemeler, İstanbul Ticaret Üniversitesi Dergisi, Cilt.3, Sayı.5, 2004, ss.21-53.
  • SCHMITT Michael N., Military Necessity and Humanity in International Huma- nitarian Law: Preserving the Delicate Balance, Virgınia Journal of International Law, Vol.50, No.4, 2010, ss.795-839.
  • SCHWARZENBERGER Georg, International Law as applied by International Co- urts and Tribunals. Vol. II: The Law of Armed Conflict. Stevens & Sons Ltd., Londen, 1968.
  • SHARP Walter Gary, The International Crimınal Tribunal for The Former Yu- goslavia: Defining The Offenses, The Maryland Journal of International Law & Trade, Vol.23, 1999, ss.14-76.
  • SHAW Malcolm, International Law, Sixth Edition, Cambridge University Press, 2008.
  • SKALAR SARIBEYOĞLU Meltem, Silahlı Çatışmalarda Sivillerin Korunması İçin Güvenli Bölgeler, Bahçeşehir Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, Cilt.9,Sayı.123-124, 2014, ss.37-64.
  • SKALAR SARIBEYOĞLU Meltem, “BM Güvenlik Konseyi’nin Terörün Finansmanının Engellenmesine İlişkin Son Kararıyla Öngörülen Önemli Değişiklikler”, Güncel Hukuk, Mart 2015/3-135, ss. 29-31.
  • SMART Matthew, An Issue of Monumental Proportions: The Necessary Changes to be Made Before International Cultural Heritage Laws Will Protect Immovable Cultural Property, Chicago-Kent Law Review, Vol.91, No.2, 2016, ss.759-802.
  • THURLOW Matthew D., Protecting Cultural Property in Iraq: How American Mi- litary Policy Comports with International Law, Yale Human Rights & Develop- ment Law Journal, Vol.8, 2005, ss.152-187.
  • TOMAN Jiri, The Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, Legal Monographs and Treaties, 1996. TSAGOURIAS Nicholas, Necessity and the Use of Force: A Special Regime, Ne- cessity Across International Law, Netherlands Yearbook of International Law, I. F. Dekker and E. Hey (Eds.), TMC Asser Press, Springer, Vol.41, 2010, ss.11-44.
  • VARNER Elizabeth, Symposium on Moral and Ethical Perspectives in War, Terro- rism, and Military Law: The Art of Armed Conflicts: An Analysis of The United States’ Legal Requirements Towards Cultural Property Under The 1954 Hague Convention, Vol.44, June, 2011, ss.1186-1243.
  • VRDOLJAK Ana Filipa, International Law, Museums and the Return of Cultural Objects. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
  • Diğer Kaynaklar
  • A Blue Shield for the Protection of our Endangered Cultural Heritage, Proceedings of the Open Session co-organized by PAC Core Activity and the Section on National Libraries, translated and edited by Corine Koch, Glasgow 2002,.ss.1-35.
  • Empirical Approaches to the International Law of War, Moderator: Aaron Fellmeth, Panelists: Richard Jackson, Willamette Journal of International Law & Dispute Resolution, 16 Willamette J. Int’l L. & Dispute Res., 2008.
  • FISK Robert, Isis Profits from Destruction of Antiquities by Selling Relics to Dealers- and Then Blowing up the Buildings They Come from to Conceal the Evidence of Looting, Independent, http://www.independent.co.uk/voices/isis-profits-from- destruction-of-antiquities-byselling-relics-to-dealers-and-then-blowing-up- the-10483421.html (e.t.30.11.2016).
  • Instructions for the Government Armies of the US in the Field, prepared by Francis Lieber, promulgated as General Orders No 100 by President Lincoln, 24 April 1863, art 14, reprinted in Dietrich Schindler and Jiri Toman, The Laws of Armed Conflict: A Collection of Conventions, Resolutions and Other Documents (4th edn, Martinus Nijhoff 2004).
  • Iraqi Raiders, The Washington Post, June 15, 1991 at A22.
  • ISIS Fast Facts, CNN, 14 Oct. 2015, http://www.cnn.com/2014/08/08/world/ISIS- fast-facts/ (e.t.30.11.2016).
  • JEHL Douglas and Elizabeth Becker, Experts’ Pleas to Pentagon Didn’t Save Muse- um, N.Y. Times, Apr. 16, 2003, B5, http://www.nytimes.com/2003/04/16/world/ a-nation-at-war-the-looting-experts-pleas-to-pentagon-didn-t-save-museum. html (e.t.22.11.2016).
  • KÜRÜM Neslihan, Uluslarararası İlişkilerde Kültür Varlıklarının Yeri, Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Trakya Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Edirne, Aralık, 2005.
  • Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. 226, 257, 8 July 1996. Operational Law Handbook, 2004, s.13, http://fas.org/irp/doddir/army/law2004.pdf (e.t.22.11.2016).
  • Practical Advice for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conf- lict, Advisory Service on International Humanitarian Law, ICRC.
  • Project of an International Declaration concerning the Laws and Customs of War, Brussels, Aug. 27, 1874. Protection of cultural property in the event of armed conflict, International Commit- tee of the Red Cross, 29.10.2010, https://www.icrc.org/eng/war-and-law/conduct- hostilities/cultural-property/overview-cultural-property.html (e.t. 10.10.2015).
  • Syria Iraq: The Islamic State Militant Group, BBC NEWS, http://www.bbc.com/ news/world-middle-east-24179084 (e.t.30.11.2016).
  • The Laws of War on Land, Pub. The Institute of International Law, Adopted by: The Institute of International Law at Oxford, 9 Sept. 1880.
  • U.S. Dep’t of Army, Field Manual 27-10, The Law of Land Warfare, para. 3.a (18 July 1956) (C1, 15 July 1976).
  • UNESCO Executive Board, Report of the Secretary-General on the Results of the Meeting of Governmental Experts on the Revision of the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict 1954, UNESCO Doc. 155 EX/51, 11-13 May 1998.
  • UNESCO, Summary Report, Diplomatic Conference on the Second Protocol to the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, The Hague, 15-26 Mar. 1999.
  • UNESCO World Heritage List, Syrian Arab Republic, http://whc.unesco.org/en/sta- tesparties/sy (25.01.2017).
Toplam 86 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Konular Hukuk
Bölüm Makaleler
Yazarlar

Selami Kuran Bu kişi benim

F. Şeyda Türkay Kahraman

Yayımlanma Tarihi 15 Mayıs 2017
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2017 Cilt: 23 Sayı: 1

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