Hungary’s Policy of Eastern Opening and The Turkic World: Between Brussels and Steppe

Year 2025, Issue: Advanced Online Publication

Burulkan Pala

Abstract

Hungary’s Eastern Opening Policy, initiated under Viktor Orbán’s leadership in 2010, has been particularly directed towards the Turkic world through the Organization of Turkic States. This article examines how Hungary has used historical narratives based on its Hun-Turkic origins to legitimize its foreign policy and how it balances its European integration with its relations with the Turkic world. The analysis, conducted within a constructivist framework, addresses the role of identity, pragmatism, and social creativity in this process and reveals that Hungary’s efforts to enhance its international status pose risks in its relations with the EU. In order to address the research question, public opinion data from the Quora.com site were organized and analyzed using MAXQDA 20, a computer-assisted qualitative data analysis program, to uncover the underlying reasons for Hungary’s rapprochement with the Organization of Turkic States.

Keywords

Hungary , European Union , Eastern Opening , Turkey , Central Asia

Ethical Statement

The author declares no conflict of interest.

Thanks

The author has no acknowledgments to declare.

Macaristan’ın Doğu Açılımı Politikası ve Türk Dünyası: Brüksel ve Bozkır Arasında

Abstract

2010’da Viktor Orbán yönetiminde başlatılan Macaristan’ın Doğuya Açılım Politikası, özellikle Türk Devletleri Teşkilatı (TDT) aracılığıyla Türk dünyasına yönelmiştir. Bu makale, Macaristan’ın Hun-Türk kökenine dayalı tarih anlatılarını dış politikasını meşrulaştırmak için nasıl kullandığını ve Avrupa entegrasyonu ile Türk dünyasıyla ilişkilerini nasıl dengelediğini incelemektedir. Konstrüktivist çerçevede yürütülen analiz, kimlik, pragmatizm ve sosyal yaratıcılığın bu süreçteki rolünü ele almakta ve Macaristan’ın uluslararası statüsünü artırma çabalarının AB ile ilişkilerde risk taşıdığını ortaya koymaktadır. Çalışma kapsamında araştırma sorusunu ele almak için Quora.com sitesinde yer alan kamuoyu fikirleri veri olarak düzenlenmiş ve bilgisayar destekli bir nitel analiz programı olan MAXQDA 20 kullanılarak analiz edilmiş ve Macaristan’ın TDT’ye yakınlaşmasının altında yatan nedenleri ortaya konmaya çalışılmıştır.

Keywords

Macaristan , Avrupa Birliği , Doğu Açılımı , Türkiye , Orta Asya

Ethical Statement

Yazarın çıkar çatışması bulunmamaktadır.

Thanks

Yazarın ek teşekkür beyanı bulunmamaktadır.

References

• “AB, Macaristan'a ayrılan fonlardan 1 milyar avroyu kesti”, https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/dunya/ab-macaristana-ayrilan-fonlardan-1-milyar-avroyu-kesti/3440402, Erişim tarihi: 12.03.2025.
• About Hungary, “FM: Turkey Is Key to the Security of Hungary and the EU,” October 25, 2021. https://abouthungary.hu/news-in-brief/fm-turkey-is-key-to-the-security-of-hungary-and-the-eu Erişim tarihi: 10.03.2025.
• Ahundov, Hazar. “From energy cooperation to investment expansion”, https://caliber.az/en/post/from-energy-cooperation-to-investment-expansion, Erişim tarihi: 12.04.2025.
• Atatorun, Mustafa. “Macaristan Dış Politikasının Yönelimleri ve Kamu Diplomasisi”, Macaristan dış politikasının yönelimleri ve kamu diplomasisi. Anadolu Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 24(Özel Sayı), 2024. Ss. 73-92.
• Balogh, P. Clashing geopolitical self-images? The strange co-existence of Christian bulwark and Eurasianism (Turanism) in Hungary. Eurasian Geography and Economics, 63, (2022)- 726-752.
• Baranyi,Tamás Péter, “Hungary’s Role in the Organization of Turkic States as an Observer State: Limitations and Opportunities”, Perceptions, Spring-Summer 2022 Volume XXVII Number 1, 121-136.
• Borrell, J. Statement on Hungary’s participation in the Organization of Turkic States. Le Monde. (2024). https://www.lemonde.fr/en/international/article/2024/07/07/eu-foreign- policy-chief-issues-fresh-rebuke-to-hungary-s-orban_6676936_4.html Erişim tarihi: 18.03.2025.
• Bráder Ádám “Viktor Orbán Receives Supreme Order of the Turkic World, Celebrates Shared Heritage and Future Cooperation”, 0 8.11.2024, https://www.hungarianconservative.com/articles/current/viktor-orban-supreme-order- of-the-turkic-world-acceptance-speech/, Erişim tarihi: 12.01.2025.
• Buzogány, A., & Cotta, B. Post-accession backsliding and European Union environmental policies. Post-Communist Economies, 34(5), (2022)-647-665.
• Csiszer, Annamaria, “Türkiye-Hungary Relations in the 21st century”, International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS), Volume VIII Issue VIII August 2024. Pp, 292-299.
• Daily News Hungary, “Hungarian pavilion at Astana expo receives 200,000 visitors”, 18 August 2017, https://dailynewshungary.com/hungarian-pavilion-astana-expo-receives-200000-visitors/, Erişim tarihi: 8.04.2025.
• Doğan, İsmail. “Macar Ulusal Kimliğinin Oluşumunda Türk Etkisi.” Ankara Üniversitesi Dil ve Tarih-Coğrafya Fakültesi Dergisi 47, no. 2 (2007): 1–12.
• Engel, P. The Realm of St. Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary. I.B. Tauris. (2001).
• Erbaş, İsa. “Constructivist Approach in Foreign Policy and in International Relations.” Journal of Positive School Psychology, 2022, Vol. 6, No. 3, pp. 5087-5096.
• Ercan, Osman. “Macar dış politikasında çeşitlendirme arayışı: Macaristan’ın ‘Doğu Açılımı’ ve Türk Devletleri.” Trakya Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi E-Dergi 12, no. 2 (2023): 168–182.
• Euronews, “Borrell'dan Orban'a TDT çıkışı: AB, ayrılıkçı Kıbrıs Türk varlığını meşrulaştırmayı reddediyor”, https://tr.euronews.com/2024/07/07/borrelldan-orbana- tdt-cikisi-ab-ayrilikci-kibris-turk-varligini-mesrulastirmayi- reddediyor?utm_source, Erişim tarihi: 23.03.2025.
• Euronews, “AB, Kuzey Kıbrıs'a 'Türk Devletleri Teşkilatı'nda gözlemci statüsünün verilmesini eleştirdi”, https://tr.euronews.com/2022/11/14/ab-kuzey-kibrisa-turk-devletleri-teskilatinda-gozlemci-statusunun-verilmesini-elestirdi?utm_ source, Erişim tarihi: 23.03.2025.
• European Commission. (2022). EU cohesion funds: Hungary’s rule-of-law violations. European Commission Press Release.
• European External Action Service. (2019). EU-Central Asia Strategy. EEAS.
• FM: Hungary and Azerbaijan sign historic gas field agreement, 6 June 2024, https://abouthungary.hu/news-in-brief/fm-hungary-and-azerbaijan-sign-historic-gas- field-agreement?utm_source, Erişim tarihi: 10.03.2025.
• Greilinger, Gabriela. “Hungary’s Eastern Opening Policy as a Long-Term Political-Economic Strategy”, AIES-Fokus, 2023/4, ss. 3-4.
• Haas, Devin. “Explainer: What is Hungary doing in the Organisation of Turkic States?”, Emerging Europe, January 18, 2023, https://emerging-europe.com/analysis/explainer- what-is-hungary-doing-in-the-organisation-of-turkic- states/?utm_source, Erişim tarihi: 10.02.2025.
• Halmai, Gábor. “The Fall of the Rule of Law in Hungary and the Complicity of the EU.” Italian Journal of Public Law 12 (2020): 204:225.
• Hasan Barış and Ali Kılıçarslan Topuz, “Hungarian Foreign Policy towards the Turkic States: A Motivation for a More Authoritarian ‑Leaning Political Model or a Pragmatic Will for Economic Gain?”, Politics in Central Europe (ISSN 1801-3422) Vol. 21, No. 5, 2025. Pp. 55-79.
• Hettyey, A. The Europeanization of Hungarian foreign policy and the Hungarization of European foreign policy, 2010-18. Journal of Contemporary European Studies, 29(1), (2021)- 125-138.
• Holsti, K. J. (1970). National role conceptions in the study of foreign policy. International Studies Quarterly, 14(3), 233-309.
• Hopf, Ted. Social Construction of International Politics: Identities & Foreign Policies, Moscow, 1955 and 1999, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2002.
• Hóvári, János. “Hungary and the Turkic World: A Twenty-first Century Challenge.” Hungarian Conservative, November 2022. https://www.hungarianconservative.com/articles/current/hungary-and-the-turkic- world-a-twenty-first-century-challenge/. “Hungary and the Turkic World: A Twenty-first Century Challenge”, Erişim tarihi: 10.10.2024.
• “How Was Turanism Present Throughout Hungary’s History?” Daily News Hungary. Erişim tarihi: 20.03 2025. https://dailynewshungary.com/how-was-turanism-present- throughout-hungarys-history/.
• Hungarian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. (2023). Stipendium Hungaricum: Annual Report. Hungarian Government.
• Jepperson, R., Wendt, A., & Katzenstein, P. (1996). Norms, identity, and culture in national security. In P. Katzenstein (Ed.), The culture of national security (pp. 33–75). New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
• Kerimli, İlham. “Hungary Secures Gas Purchase Agreement with Azerbaijan”, August 22, 2023, https://caspiannews.com/news-detail/hungary-secures-gas-purchase- agreement-with-azerbaijan-2023-8-22-3/ Erişim tarihi: 15.03.2025.
• Kowalczyk, M. Hungarian Turanism: From the birth of the ideology to modernity. Historia i Polityka, 20(27), (2017): 49-63.
• Larson, D. W., & Shevchenko, A. Status seekers: Chinese and Russian responses to U.S. primacy. International Security, 34(4), (2010): 63-95.
• László, Veszprémy, “Hungary’s Conversion to Christianity: The Establishment of Hungarian Statehood and Its Consequences to the Thirteenth Century.” Hungarian Studies Review 28, no. 1–2 (2001): 73-92.
• Makhanov, Kanat. “Understanding The Overlap of Hungary’s “Eastern Opening” and Cooperation of Turkic States”, https://www.eurasian-research.org/publication/understanding-the-overlap-of-hungarys-eastern-opening-and-cooperation-of-turkic-states/#:~:text=For%20instance%2C %20all%20countries%20of,(UN%20Comtrade%2C%202023). Erişim tarihi: 20.03.2025.
• Matura, Tamas .“The Belt and Road Initiative depicted in Hungary and Slovakia”, Journal of Contemporary East Asia Studies Volume 7, 2018 - Issue 2 pp. 174-189.
• Mikoviç, Nikola. “Hungary and Azerbaijan: Fueling more than just gas”, April 5, 2025, https://moderndiplomacy.eu/2025/04/05/hungary-and-azerbaijan-fueling-more-than- just-gas/ Erişim tarihi: 20.04.2025.
• Moldicz, C. Hungary external relations briefing: Hungarian foreign policy in 2019. China- CEE Institute. https://china-cee.eu/2020/03/02/hungary-external-relations-briefing- hungarian-foreign-policy-in-2019/ Erişim tarihi: 10.02.2025.
• Orbán, V. Speech on Hungary’s Eastern Opening Policy. Hungarian Prime Ministry. (2011). https://miniszterelnok.hu/en/speech-by-prime-minister-viktor-orban-at-the-opening- of-the-5th-budapest-eurasia-forum/ Erişim tarihi: 20.02.2025.
• Orbán, V. Speech at the 6th Summit of the Cooperation Council of Turkic-speaking States. Hungarian Prime Ministry. (2018). https://2015-2022.miniszterelnok.hu/prime- minister-viktor-orbans-speech-at-the-6th-summit-of-the-cooperation-council-of- turkic-speaking-states/, Erişim tarihi: 10.02.2025.
• Orbán, V. Speech at the Organization of Turkic States Summit. Hungarian Conservative. (2023).
• Özdemir M. Yılmaz, https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/ekonomi/bakan-kacir-macaristan-ile-ticaret-hacmimiz-4-milyar-dolara-yaklasti/3065044?utm_source, Erişim tarihi: 12.03.2025; UN Comtrade, 2023.
• Rahimov, Rahim “Hungary and the Organization of Turkic States: A Symbiotic Realism?”, Think Visegrad Fund. (2023). Pp. 1-20.
• Roa, Carlos, “Hungary’s Keystone Gamble: Balancing East and West in a Multipolar World”, October 12, 2024, The Geopolitics, https://thegeopolitics.com/hungarys-keystone- gamble-balancing-east-and-west-in-a-multipolar-world/, Erişim tarihi: 10.04.2025.
• Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations, (1979). (pp. 33-47). Brooks/Cole.
• The Astana Times, “Kazakhstan, Hungary Agree on Oil Supplies and Joint Energy Projects”, 18 February 2025, https://astanatimes.com/2025/02/kazakhstan-hungary-agree-on-oil-supplies-and-joint-energy-projects/, Erişim Tarihi: 12.03.2025.
• The Astana Times, “Kazakhstan, Hungary Strengthen Strategic Partnership, Expand Economic Cooperation”, 18 February 2025, https://astanatimes.com/2025/02/kazakhstan-hungary-strengthen-strategic- partnership-expand-economic-cooperation/, Erişim tarihi: 15.04.2025.
• The Astana Times, “Kazakh President’s Visit to Hungary Strengthens Partnership Between Nations”, 20 November 2024, https://astanatimes.com/2024/11/kazakh- presidents-visit-to-hungary-strengthens-partnership-between-nations/, Erişim tarihi: 8.04.2025.
• The Astana Times, “Hungarians, Kazakhs are almost relatives, says Hungarian cultural centre head”, 19 April 2018, https://astanatimes.com/2018/04/hungarians-kazakhs-are-almost-relatives-says-hungarian-cultural-centre-head/, Erişim tarihi: 8.04.2025.
• “The Medieval Kingdom of Hungary, a Nation Born From Christianity.” Ancient Origins. Erişim tarihi: 20.03.2025. https://www.ancient-origins.net/history-important- events/kingdom-hungary-0020781
• TİKA, https://tika.gov.tr/detail- kanuni_sultan_suleyman_in_macaristan_daki_ turbesi_alanindaki_kazi_calismalari_tamamlandi/, Erişim tarihi: 8.01.2025.
• Szerencsés, László. EU-Turkey Relations in Light of Hungary’s EU Presidency 10 p.; (Istanbul Policy Center-Sabancı University-Stiftung Mercator Initiative)
• Szijjártó, Péter. “FM: Turkey Is Key to the Security of Hungary and the EU,” About Hungary, October 25, 2021, https://abouthungary.hu/news-in-brief/fm-turkey-is-key-to-the-security-of-hungary-and-the-eu. Erişim tarihi: 10.03.2025.
• Tarrósy István and Zoltán Vörös, “Hungary’s Pragmatic Foreign Policy in a Post-American World”, Politics in Central Europe, Volume 16 (2020): Issue s1 (February 2020), pp. 113 – 134.
• Tofiq, Mustafazade. “XVII. Yüzyılın İkinci Yarısı-XVIII. Yüzyılın Başlarında Osmanlı-Avusturya İlişkileri ve Macaristan.” Akademik Tarih ve Düşünce Dergisi 10, no. 5 (2023): 1866–1877. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/atdd/issue/80240/1392983.
• Tonkonog, Olga. “Hungary and Kazakhstan to boost cooperation”, https://kz.kursiv.media/en/2025-03-20/engk-nknk-hungary-and-kazakhstan-to- boost-cooperation/, Erişim tarihi: 02.04.2025.
• UN Comtrade. (2023). Hungary trade statistics. United Nations Comtrade Database. https://comtradeplus.un.org/. Erişim tarihi: 12.02.2025.
• Végh, Zsuzsanna. “Hungary: The EU's Troublemaker.” In Keeping Europeans Together: Assessing the State of EU Cohesion, edited by Daniela Schwarzer, Chapter 13. (2018). Pp. 72- 75. European Council on Foreign Relations. JSTOR. https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep21582.13 Erişim tarihi: 10.03.2025.
• Visnovitz, Péter, and Erin Kristin Jenne. Populist Argumentation in Foreign Policy: The Case of Hungary under Viktor Orbán, 2010–2020. Comparative European Politics 19, no. 6 (2021): 683–702.
• Wendt, A. Anarchy is what states make of it: The social construction of power politics. International Organization, 46(2), (1992): 391-425.
• Wendt, A. Collective identity formation and the international state. American Political Science Review, 88(2), (1994): 384-396.
• https://www.savunmasanayist.com/macaristan-heyeti-turk-sihalari-test/, Erişim tarihi: 15.02.2025.
• Wendt, A. Constructing International Politics, International Security, Vol. 20, No. 1 (Summer, 1995), pp. 71-81.
• https://www.trthaber.com/haber/dunya/macaristanli-bakan-macar-ordusu-turk-savunma-sanayi-urunleri-alma-karari-aldi-701675.html. Erişim tarihi: 15.02.2025.
• https://oib.org.tr/tr/basin-odasi-basin-bultenleri-turk-firmalari-macaristanda-otomotivin-dev-sirketleriyle-bulustu.html Erişim tarihi: 20.04.2025.
• https://tradingeconomics.com/hungary/exports/uzbekistan, Erişim tarihi: 12.03.2025.
• https://www.turkicstates.org/en/news/opening-ceremony-of-the-european-office-of-the-turkic-council-and-meeting-of-the-foreign-ministers-was-held-in-budapest, Erişim tarihi: 10.03.2025.
• https://tradingeconomics.com/hungary/share-of-trade-with-the-eu-share-of-exports-to-eu-eurostat-data.html, Erişim tarihi: 12.04.2025
• https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/savunma-sanayisi/turkiye-ve-macaristandan-savunma-sanayisi-alaninda-stratejik-isbirligi/3470369 Erişim tarihi: 9.04.2025.
• https://stipendiumhungaricum.hu/country/azerbaijan/?utm_source, Erişim tarihi: 10.04.2025.
• https://www.turkicstates.org/tr