“ONLAR KALSIN, BİZ GİDİYORUZ!” BİRLEŞİK KRALLIK BAĞIMSIZLIK PARTİSİ’NİN SÖYLEMLERİNDE POPÜLİZM VE AVRUPA ŞÜPHECİLİĞİ

Abstract

Bu makale, Birleşik Krallık Bağımsızlık Partisi'nin (UKIP) ve partiye uzun süre liderlik eden Nigel Farage’ın Brexit referandumu öncesi söylemlerinde bir siyasi aktör olarak Avrupa Birliği’ne (AB) ve bir fikir ya da süreç olarak Avrupa bütünleşmesine ilişkin konuları nasıl “çerçevelediğini” son yıllarda popülizm literatüründe giderek ağırlık kazanan fikirsel kavramsal yaklaşım bağlamında ampirik olarak değerlendirmeyi amaçlamaktadır. 2013 ve 2015 yılları arasında UKIP ve Farage adına partinin resmi internet sayfasında paylaşılan tüm yazılı belgelerin çerçeveleme analizi yaklaşımıyla kodlanmasıyla tamamlanan niteliksel içerik analizi, çerçeveleri temel yapısal öğelerine (tanı, çözüm, amaç) ayırarak ve dört farklı tematik boyutta (siyasi, ekonomik, kültürel, hukuki) tespit etmekte ve bahsi geçen tüm aktörleri “Biz” ve “Onlar” ikili ayrımında kategorilere ayırmaktadır. Makale, söylemlerde AB’nin “Onlar” kategorisinde en başta yer aldığını ve Avrupa bütünleşmesinin üç ana çerçeve altında ele alındığını ortaya koymaktadır. Bu üç çerçeve, AB Üyeliğinin Faydaları/Maliyetleri, Ulusal Egemenlik ve Britanya Kimliği olarak ortaya çıkmaktadır.

Keywords

• Popülizm
• Popülist Sağ Partiler
• Avrupa Şüpheciliği
• Brexit
• Avrupa Birliği

“They Can Stay, But We Are Leaving!” Populism and Euroscepticism in the Discourse of the UK Independence Party

Abstract

This paper sets out to empirically assess the ways in which the United Kingdom Independence Party (UKIP) and the long-time party leader Nigel Farage “framed” the issues concerning the European Union (EU) as a political actor and European integration as an idea or a process in their rhetoric prior to the Brexit referendum. It uses the ideational approach to the concept of populism, which has been gaining growing prominence in the populism literature in recent years. The frame analysis of all textual documents which were shared on behalf of the UKIP and Farage on the Party’s official website between 2013 and 2015 identifies the discursive frames through their constitute elements (diagnosis, prognosis, motivation) and under four thematic dimensions (political, economic, cultural, legal) while categorizing all of the actors that are addressed in the rhetoric under the dichotomy of “Us” versus “Them”. In conclusion, the article reveals that the EU is the most-referred actor under the “Them” category and that the European integration is addressed through three master frames: Costs/Benefits of EU Membership, National Sovereignty, and British Identity.

Keywords

• Populism
• Populist Right Parties
• Euroscepticism
• Brexit
• European Union

References

1. Betz, Hans-Georg. Radical Right-Wing Populism in Western Europe, New York: Macmillan Press, 1994.
2. Gamson, William A. Talking Politics, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
3. Gifford, Chris. The Making of Eurosceptic Britain, 2. Baskı, Farnham: Ashgate, 2014.
4. Goffman, Erving. Frame Analysis, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974.
5. Hawkins, Kirk. Venezuela’s Chavismo and Populism in Comparative Perspective, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
6. Hix, Simon. What’s Wrong with the Europe Union and How to Fix It, Cambridge: Polity Press, 2008.
7. Hofstadter, Richard. The Age of Reform: From Bryan to FDR, vol. 95, New York: Vintage, 1955.
8. Kazin, Michael. The Populist Persuasion: American History, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995.

9. Laclau, Ernesto. On Populist Reason, London: Verso, 2007.
10. Lipset, Martin & Stein Rokkan. Party Systems and Voter Alignments: Cross-National Perspectives, New York: Free Press, 1967.
11. Mudde, Cas. Populist Radical Right Parties in Europe, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
12. Norris, Pippa. Radical Right: Voters and Parties in the Electoral Market, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
13. Norris, Pippa ve Ronald Inglehart, Cultural Backlash: Trump, Brexit, and Authoritarian Populism, Cambridge University Press, 2019.
14. Postel, Charles. The Populist Vision, New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.
15. Taggart, Paul. Populism, Buckingham and Philadelphia: Open University Press, 2000.
16. de la Torre, Carlos. “Global Populism: Histories, Trajectories, Problems, and Challenges.” İçinde Routledge Handbook of Global Populism, ed. Carlos de la Torre, 1-28. New York: Routledge, 2019.
17. Marsh, David. “Populism and Brexit.” İçinde Authoritarian Populism and Liberal Democracy, ed. Ivor Crewe ve David Sanders, 73-86. Palgrave Macmillan, 2020.
18. Mudde, Cas. “An Ideational Approach.” İçinde The Oxford Handbook of Populism, ed. Cristóbal Rovira Kaltwasser, Paul Taggart, Paulina Ochoa Espejo ve Pierre Ostiguy, 27-47, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017.
19. Panizza, Francisco. “Introduction: Populism and Mirror of Democracy.” İçinde Populism and Mirror of Democracy, ed. Francisco Panizza, 1-31. London: Verso, 2005,
20. Peruzzotti, Enrique. “Laclau’s Theory of Populism: A Critical Review,” İçinde Routledge Handbook of Global Populism, ed. Carlos de la Torre, 31-43, New York: Routledge, 2019.
21. Rovira Kaltwasser, Cristóbal, Paul Taggart, Paulina Ochoa Espejo ve Pierre Ostiguy. “Populism: An Overview of the Concept and the State of the Art.” İçinde The Oxford Handbook of Populism, ed. Cristóbal Rovira Kaltwasser, Paul Taggart, Paulina Ochoa Espejo ve Pierre Ostiguy, 1-24. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017.
22. Snow, David A. ve Robert D. Benford. “Master Frames and Cycles of Protest.” İçinde Frontiers in Social Movement Theory, ed. Aldon Morris ve Carol McClurg Mueller, 133-155, Yale University Press, 1992.
23. Szczerbiak, Aleks ve Paul Taggart. “Introduction: Opposing Europe? The Politics of Euroscepticism in Europe.” İçinde Opposing Europe? The Comparative Party Politics of Euroscepticism. Volume 1: Case Studies and Country Surveys, ed. Aleks Szczerbiak ve Paul Taggart, 1-15, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
24. Ash, Timothy Garton. “Is Britain European?”, International Affairs 77, no 1 (2001): 1-13. DOI: 10.1111/1468-2346.00174.
25. Browning, Christopher. “Brexit Populism and Fantasies of Fulfilment”, Cambridge Review of International Affairs 32, no 3 (2019): 222-244, DOI: 10.1080/09557571.2019.1567461.
26. Caiania, Manuela ve Nicolò Conti. “In the Name of the People: The Euroscepticism of the Italian Radical Right”, Perspectives on European Politics and Society 15, no 2 (2014): 183-197. DOI: 10.1080/15705854.2014.885766.
27. Dahl, Robert A. “A Democratic Dilemma: System Effectiveness Versus Citizen Participation”, Political Science Quarterly 109, no 1 (1994): 23-34.
28. Entman, Robert M. “Framing: Toward Clarification of a Fractured Paradigm”, Journal of Communication 43, no 4 (1993): 51-58. DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-2466.1993.tb01304.x.
29. Hawkins, Kirk ve Cristóbal Rovira Kaltwasser, The Ideational Approach to Populism”, Latin American Research Review 52, no 4 (2017):1-16. DOI: 10.25222/larr.85.
30. Hooghe, Liesbet ve Gary Marks, “A Postfunctionalist Theory of European Integration: From Permissive Consensus to Constraining Dissensus”, British Journal of Political Science 39, no 1 (2009): 1-23. DOI: 10.1017/S0007123408000409.
31. . “Cleavage Theory Meets Europe’s Crises: Lipset, Rokkan, and the Transnational Cleavage”, Journal of European Public Policy 25, no 1 (2018): 109-135. DOI: 10.1080/13501763.2017.1310279.
32. Jagers, Jan ve Stefaan Walgrave. “Populism as Political Communication Style: An Empirical Study of Political Parties’ Discourse in Belgium”, European Journal of Political Research, 46, no 3, (2007), 319-345. DOI: 10.1111/j.1475-6765.2006.00690.x.
33. Kneuer, Marianne. “The Tandem of Populism and Euroscepticism: A Comparative Perspective in the Light of the European Crises”, Contemporary Social Science 14, no 1 (2018): 26-42. DOI: 10.1080/21582041.2018.1426874.
34. Kriesi, Hanspeter, Edgar Grande, Romain Lachat, Martin Dolezal, Simon Bornschier ve Timotheos Frey. “Globalization and the Transformation of the National Political Space: Six European Countries Compared”, European Journal of Political Research 45, no 6 (2006): 921-956. DOI: 10.1111/j.1475-6765.2006.00644.x.
35. Moffitt, Benjamin ve Simon Tormey. “Rethinking Populism: Politics, Mediatisation and Political Style”, Political Studies 62, no 2, (2014): 381-397. DOI: 10.1111/1467-9248.12032.
36. Mudde, Cas. “The Populist Zeitgeist”, Government and Opposition 39, no 4 (2004): 541-563, DOI: 10.1111/j.1477-7053.2004.00135.x.
37. . “Sussex v. North Carolina: The Comparative Study of Party Based Euroscepticism”, Sussex European Institute Working Paper 23 (2011).
38. Mudde, Cas ve Cristóbal Rovira Kaltwasser. “Exclusionary vs. Inclusionary Populism: Comparing Contemporary Europe and Latin America”, Government and Opposition 48, no 2, (2013): 147-174. DOI: 10.1017/gov.2012.11.
39. Rooduijn, Matthijs, Sarah L. de Lange ve Wouter van der Brug. “A Populist Zeitgeist? Programmatic Contagion by Populist Parties in Western Europe”, Party Politics 20, no 4 (2014): 563-575, DOI: 10.1177/1354068811436065.
40. Snow, David A., E. Burke Rochford, Jr., Steven K. Worden ve Robert D. Benford. “Frame Alignment Processes, Micromobilization and Movement Participation”, American Sociological Review 51, no 4 (1986): 464-481. DOI: 10.2307/2095581.
41. Snow, David A. ve Robert D. Benford. “Ideology, Frame Resonance, and Participant Mobilization”, International Social Movement Research 1, (1988): 197-218.
42. Stavrakakis, Yannis. “Discourse Theory in Populism Research”, Journal of Language and Politics 16, no 4 (2017): 523-534. DOI:10.1075/jlp.17025.sta.
43. Taggart, Paul. “A Touchstone of Dissent: Euroscepticism in Contemporary Western European Party Systems”, European Journal of Political Research 33 (2003): 363-388. DOI: 10.1111/1475-6765.00387.
44. Vasilopoulou, Sofia. “Continuity and Change in the Study of Euroscepticism: Plus ça change?”, Journal of Common Market Studies 51, no 1 (2013): 153-168. DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-5965.2012.02306.x.
45. Weyland, Kurt. “Clarifying a Contested Concept: Populism in the Study of Latin American Politics”, Comparative Politics 34, no 1 (2001): 1-22. DOI: 10.2307/422412.
46. European Parliament. “2019 European Election Results”, Erişim Tarihi: Aralık 20, 2019, https://www.europarl.europa.eu/election-results-2019/en/united-kingdom
47. Kriesi, Hanspeter. “The Mobilization of the Political Potentials Linked to European Integration by National Political Parties.” Avrupa şüpheciliği konferansında sunulan tebliğ, Amsterdam, 2005.
48. Özbey, Ebru Ece. “Party-Level Euroscepticism of the The Radical Populist Political Parties in the European Union Member States: The Cases of the United Kingdom Independence Party (UKIP) and the Coalition of the Radical Left (SYRIZA).” Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Orta Doğu Teknik Üniversitesi, 2016.
49. UKIP. Create an Earthquake, 2014 Avrupa Parlamentosu Seçim Manifestosu, (2014): 1-8.
50. UK Parliament. https://www.parliament.uk.
51. Thatcher, Margaret. “Speech to the College of Europe.” Konuşma, Brugge, Eylül 20, 1988. https://www.margaretthatcher.org/document/107332.