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The Development of Biological Weapons and its Status in International Law

Year 2021, Volume: 3 Issue: 1-2, 46 - 72, 31.12.2021

Abstract

In this multidisciplinary article, concept of biological weapons,
living organisms and technologies operated in the production of biological
weapons, detection methods and the weapons’ position in international law
are presented together. From this point of view, firstly, the conceptualizations
of biological weapons in the relevant literature are highlighted, and
then their technical qualities consisting of various aspects are mentioned in
the article. In order for a weapon to be defined as a biological weapon, it
must contain toxic substances produced by a living organism. At that point,
it is underlined that the dynamics of the relationship between the biological
agent and the target population are directly related to the negative consequences
created by the relationship. In the subsequent parts of the article, it is
stated the historical process of the biological weapons and global attempts
to prevent the weapons’ use within the dimensions of international law. The
use of biological weapons by various states and societies dates to ancient
times. In the historical process, political actors have attempted to use several
forms of biological weapons to attain superiority over the enemy in
wars. Despite this, the gradual progress in the destruction of the weapons
has paved the way for the implementation of some international law instruments.
Though the Hague Conventions signed in 1899 and 1907 were the
first considerable initiatives which had international consequences, the use
of biological weapons in the first half of the 20th century had devastating
outcomes, as the conventions did not include the sanctions or coercive measures.
In 1972, with the signing of the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention,
it was aimed by the states to limit the development and production
of biological weapons. At the end of the article, it is discussed how biological
weapons will evolve in the future with technological developments.

References

  • Barras, V. ve Greub, B. (2014). History of Biological Warfare and Bioterrorism. Clinical Microbiology and Infection. ss. 497-502.
  • Başalma, D. ve Pashazadeh, M. (2011). Hintyağının (Ricinus communis L.) Önemi, Bitkisel Özellikleri ve Tarımı, Journal of Agricultural Faculty of Uludag University, 25, (2), ss. 57-67
  • Beeching, N. J., Dance, D. A., Miller, A. R. ve Spencer, R. C. (2002). Biological Warfare And Bioterrorism. BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.). 324, (7333), ss. 336–339. https://doi. org/10.1136/bmj.324.7333.336.
  • Bossi, P, Garin D., Guihot A., Gay, F. Crance, J-M., Debord, T. Autran, B. ve Bricaire F. (2006). Bioterrorism: Management Of Major Biological Agents, Cellular And Molecular Life Sciences. 63, ss. 2196–2212.
  • Carus, W. S. (2017). A Short History of Biological Warfare: From Pre-History to the 21th Century. Washington: National Defense University Press.
  • Cenciarelli, O., Rea, S., Carestia, M., D’amico F., Malizia, A., Bellecci C., Gauidio, P., Gucciardino A. ve Fiorito, R. (2013). Bioweapons and Bioterrorism: A Review of History and Biological Agents. Defence S&T Tech. Bull. 6, (2), ss.111-129.
  • Cenciarelli, O., Pietropaoli, S. Gabbarini, V. Carestia, M., D’Amico F, Malizia. (2014). Use Of Non-Pathogenic Biological Agents As Biological Warfare Simulants Fort He Development Of A Stand-Off Detection System, J.Microb. Biochem. Technol. 6, Ss.375-380
  • Chen, X., Chughtai, A. A., ve MacIntyre, C. R. (2017). A Systematic Review of Risk Analysis Tools for Differentiating Unnatural From Natural Epidemics, Military Medicine. 182, (11), ss.1827–1835. doi: https://doi.org/10.7205/MILMED-D-17-00090
  • Christopher, G. W., Cieslak, T.J., Pavlin, J.A., Eitzen Jr E.M. (1997). Biological Warfare: A Historical Perspective. Jama. 278, (5), ss.412-417.
  • Corbel, M. J., & Banai, M. (2015). Brucella. Bergey’s Manual of Systematics of Archaea and Bacteria. ss.1–30. doi:10.1002/9781118960608.gbm00807.
  • Doğancı, L. Baysallar, M. (2001). Biyoterörizm ve Biyolojik Savunma. Flora Dergisi. 6, (4), ss. 209-224.
  • Douglas, K. M. (2021). COVID-19 Conspiracy Theories, Group Processes & Intergroup Relations. 24, (2), ss.270–275. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430220982068
  • Dünya Sağlık Örgütü (WHO). (2021). Coronavirus Symptoms, Erişim adresi: https:// www.who.int/health-topics/coronavirus#tab=tab_3, E.T. 04.04.2021
  • Erkekoğlu, P., Koçer-Gümüşel, B. (2018). Biyolojik Savaş Ajanları: Tarihçeleri, Patofizyolojileri, Tanıları, Tedavileri ve Önlemler. FABAD J. Pharm. Sci. 43, (2), ss. 171-201
  • Fontanent, A., Autran, B., Lina, B., Kieny, M.P. ve Karim, S.S.A. (2021). SARS-CoV-2 Variants and Ending the COVID-19 Pandemic, the Lancet. 397, ss.952-954. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)00370-6.
  • Frischknecht, F. (2003). The History of Biological Warfare. EMBO Reports.
  • George, W., Christopher, D. M. (2018). Historical Overview: From Poisoned Darts to Pan- Hazard Preparedness. C. K. Joel Bozue içinde, Medical Aspect of Biological Warfare, ss. 1-36. Texas: Office of The Surgeon General Borden Institute.
  • Goldblat, J. (1997). The Biological Weapons Convention: An overview. International Review of the Red Cross, 37, (318), ss.251-265. doi:10.1017/S0020860400084679
  • Gooding, J. J. (2006). Biosensor Technology For Detecting Biological Warfare Agents: Recent Progress And Future Trends. Analytica Chimica Acta. 559, (2), ss.137–151. Doi:10.1016/J.Aca.2005.12.020.
  • Guillemin, J. (2005). Biological Weapons: From the Invention of State-Sponsored Programs to Contemporary Bioterrorism. New York: Columbia University Press.
  • Guillemin, J. (2006). Scientists and the history of biological weapons: A brief historical overview of the development of biological weapons in the twentieth century. EBM Reports.
  • Harris, E. (2020). North Korea and Biological Weapns. Stimson: https://www.stimson. org/2020/north-korea-and-biological-weapons-assessing-the-evidence/. E.T. 2 Nisan 2021.
  • Hawley, R. J. ve Eitzen Jr, E. M. (2001). Biological Weapons—a Primer for Microbiologists, Annual Review of Microbiology. 55, ss. 235–253.
  • Karwa, M., Currie, B., ve Kvetan, V. (2005). Bioterrorism: Preparing For The İmpossible Or The İmprobable. Critical Care Medicine. 33, (1), ss.75–95. doi: https://doi. org/10.1097/01.ccm.0000151070.56915.22
  • Kılıç, S. (2006). Biyolojik Silah Olarak Toksinler. Türk Hijyen ve Deneysel Biyoloji Dergisi. 63, (1-2-3), ss. 85 – 100.
  • Kim, H-K., Philipp, E. ve Chung, H. (2017). North Korea’s Biological Weapons Program: Known and Unknown. Cambridge: Belfer Center.
  • Littlewood, J., (2005). The Biological Weapons Convention: A Failed Revolution, Aldershot, UK. Ashgate, ss. 250.
  • Lofti, M., Hamlin ve M.R., Rezaei, N. (2020). COVID-19: Transmission, Prevention, And Potential Therapeutic Opportunities, Clinica Chimica Acta. 508, ss.254-266. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cca.2020.05.044
  • Mark Wheelis, L. R. (2006). Historical Context and Overview. L. R. Mark Wheelis içinde, Deadly Cultures: Biological Weapons since 1945, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, ss.1-9
  • Martin, J.W., Christopher, G.W. ve Eitzen, E.M. (2007). History of Bilological Weapons: From Poisoned Darts to Intentional Epidemics. Medical Aspects of Biological Warfare.
  • Nie, J. B. (2020). In the Shadow Of Biological Warfare: Conspiracy Theories On The Origins Of COVID-19 And Enhancing Global Governance Of Biosafety As A Matter Of Urgency. Journal Of Bioethical İnquiry. 17, (4), ss. 567–574. doi: https://doi. org/10.1007/s11673-020-10025-8
  • Nixdorff, M. R. (2009). An Introduction to Biological Weapons. K. M. Nixdorff içinde, BWPP Biological Weapons Reader. Genava: BWPP. ss. 1-12.
  • NTI. (2021). Biological. NTI: https://www.nti.org/learn/countries/iraq/biological/, E.T. 27 Mart 2021.
  • Sathua, K., ve Flora, S. J. S. (2020). Bacterial Biological Warfare Agents. Handbook on Biological Warfare Preparedness, ss. 13–31. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-812026-2.00002-5
  • Sweeney, D. A., Hicks, C. W., Cui, X., Li, Y., ve Eichacker, P. Q. (2011). Anthrax Infection. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 184, (12), ss. 1333–1341. doi:10.1164/rccm.201102-0209ci
  • Pal, M. , Tsegaye, M. , Girzaw, F. , Bedada, H. , Godishala, V. ve Kandi, V. (2017). An Overview on Biological Weapons and Bioterrorism. American Journal of Biomedical Research. 5, (2), ss.24-34.

Biyolojik Silahların Gelişimi ve Uluslararası Hukuktaki Yeri

Year 2021, Volume: 3 Issue: 1-2, 46 - 72, 31.12.2021

Abstract

Bu multidisipliner makalede kavramsal olarak biyolojik silahlar, biyolojik
silah üretiminde kullanılan canlı organizmalar ve teknolojiler, tespit
yöntemleri ve uluslararası hukuktaki yeri bir arada sunulmuştur. Bu doğrultuda,
makalede ilk olarak biyolojik silahların literatürdeki kavramsallaştırmaları
üzerinde durulmuş, sonrasında ise çeşitli faktörlerden oluşan
teknik niteliklerine değinilmiştir. Bir silahın biyolojik silah olarak tanımlanabilmesi
için canlı bir organizma ya da onun tarafından üretilen toksin
maddeler içermesi gerekmektedir. Bu noktada, biyolojik ajan ve hedef
popülasyon arasındaki ilişki dinamiklerinin yaratacağı olumsuz sonuçlar
ile doğrudan ilintili olduğunun altı çizilmiştir. Makalenin devam eden bölümlerinde
biyolojik silahların kullanımının tarihsel süreci ve uluslararası
hukuk boyutları içerisinde yayılımı ve kullanımının engellenme girişimlerinden
bahsedilmiştir. Biyolojik silahların çeşitli devletler ve toplumlar
tarafından kullanımı antik dönemlere kadar uzanmaktadır. Tarihsel süreç
içerisinde birçok politik aktör biyolojik silahların farklı formlarını savaş ya
da çatışmalarda düşmana üstünlük sağlayabilmek adına kullanmıştır. Söz
konusu silahların tahribatının giderek artması birtakım uluslararası hukuk
enstrümanlarının uygulamaya konulmasına ortam hazırlamıştır. 1899 ve
1907 yıllarında imzalanan Lahey Sözleşmeleri hukuki anlamda uluslararası
sonuçları olan ilk önemli girişim olmasına rağmen biyolojik silahların
kullanımını engelleyebilecek yaptırım gücünü içerisinde barındırmaması
nedeniyle 20.yy’ın ilk yarısında biyolojik silahların kullanımı yıkıcı
sonuçlar doğurmuştur. 1972 yılında ise Biyolojik Silahlar Sözleşmesi’nin
(The Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention) imzalanması ile biyolojik
silahların geliştirilmesi ve üretilmesinin sınırlandırılması hedeflenmiştir.
Makalenin sonunda ise biyolojik silahların teknolojik gelişmeler ile gelecekte
nasıl bir konuma evrileceği tartışılmıştır.

References

  • Barras, V. ve Greub, B. (2014). History of Biological Warfare and Bioterrorism. Clinical Microbiology and Infection. ss. 497-502.
  • Başalma, D. ve Pashazadeh, M. (2011). Hintyağının (Ricinus communis L.) Önemi, Bitkisel Özellikleri ve Tarımı, Journal of Agricultural Faculty of Uludag University, 25, (2), ss. 57-67
  • Beeching, N. J., Dance, D. A., Miller, A. R. ve Spencer, R. C. (2002). Biological Warfare And Bioterrorism. BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.). 324, (7333), ss. 336–339. https://doi. org/10.1136/bmj.324.7333.336.
  • Bossi, P, Garin D., Guihot A., Gay, F. Crance, J-M., Debord, T. Autran, B. ve Bricaire F. (2006). Bioterrorism: Management Of Major Biological Agents, Cellular And Molecular Life Sciences. 63, ss. 2196–2212.
  • Carus, W. S. (2017). A Short History of Biological Warfare: From Pre-History to the 21th Century. Washington: National Defense University Press.
  • Cenciarelli, O., Rea, S., Carestia, M., D’amico F., Malizia, A., Bellecci C., Gauidio, P., Gucciardino A. ve Fiorito, R. (2013). Bioweapons and Bioterrorism: A Review of History and Biological Agents. Defence S&T Tech. Bull. 6, (2), ss.111-129.
  • Cenciarelli, O., Pietropaoli, S. Gabbarini, V. Carestia, M., D’Amico F, Malizia. (2014). Use Of Non-Pathogenic Biological Agents As Biological Warfare Simulants Fort He Development Of A Stand-Off Detection System, J.Microb. Biochem. Technol. 6, Ss.375-380
  • Chen, X., Chughtai, A. A., ve MacIntyre, C. R. (2017). A Systematic Review of Risk Analysis Tools for Differentiating Unnatural From Natural Epidemics, Military Medicine. 182, (11), ss.1827–1835. doi: https://doi.org/10.7205/MILMED-D-17-00090
  • Christopher, G. W., Cieslak, T.J., Pavlin, J.A., Eitzen Jr E.M. (1997). Biological Warfare: A Historical Perspective. Jama. 278, (5), ss.412-417.
  • Corbel, M. J., & Banai, M. (2015). Brucella. Bergey’s Manual of Systematics of Archaea and Bacteria. ss.1–30. doi:10.1002/9781118960608.gbm00807.
  • Doğancı, L. Baysallar, M. (2001). Biyoterörizm ve Biyolojik Savunma. Flora Dergisi. 6, (4), ss. 209-224.
  • Douglas, K. M. (2021). COVID-19 Conspiracy Theories, Group Processes & Intergroup Relations. 24, (2), ss.270–275. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430220982068
  • Dünya Sağlık Örgütü (WHO). (2021). Coronavirus Symptoms, Erişim adresi: https:// www.who.int/health-topics/coronavirus#tab=tab_3, E.T. 04.04.2021
  • Erkekoğlu, P., Koçer-Gümüşel, B. (2018). Biyolojik Savaş Ajanları: Tarihçeleri, Patofizyolojileri, Tanıları, Tedavileri ve Önlemler. FABAD J. Pharm. Sci. 43, (2), ss. 171-201
  • Fontanent, A., Autran, B., Lina, B., Kieny, M.P. ve Karim, S.S.A. (2021). SARS-CoV-2 Variants and Ending the COVID-19 Pandemic, the Lancet. 397, ss.952-954. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)00370-6.
  • Frischknecht, F. (2003). The History of Biological Warfare. EMBO Reports.
  • George, W., Christopher, D. M. (2018). Historical Overview: From Poisoned Darts to Pan- Hazard Preparedness. C. K. Joel Bozue içinde, Medical Aspect of Biological Warfare, ss. 1-36. Texas: Office of The Surgeon General Borden Institute.
  • Goldblat, J. (1997). The Biological Weapons Convention: An overview. International Review of the Red Cross, 37, (318), ss.251-265. doi:10.1017/S0020860400084679
  • Gooding, J. J. (2006). Biosensor Technology For Detecting Biological Warfare Agents: Recent Progress And Future Trends. Analytica Chimica Acta. 559, (2), ss.137–151. Doi:10.1016/J.Aca.2005.12.020.
  • Guillemin, J. (2005). Biological Weapons: From the Invention of State-Sponsored Programs to Contemporary Bioterrorism. New York: Columbia University Press.
  • Guillemin, J. (2006). Scientists and the history of biological weapons: A brief historical overview of the development of biological weapons in the twentieth century. EBM Reports.
  • Harris, E. (2020). North Korea and Biological Weapns. Stimson: https://www.stimson. org/2020/north-korea-and-biological-weapons-assessing-the-evidence/. E.T. 2 Nisan 2021.
  • Hawley, R. J. ve Eitzen Jr, E. M. (2001). Biological Weapons—a Primer for Microbiologists, Annual Review of Microbiology. 55, ss. 235–253.
  • Karwa, M., Currie, B., ve Kvetan, V. (2005). Bioterrorism: Preparing For The İmpossible Or The İmprobable. Critical Care Medicine. 33, (1), ss.75–95. doi: https://doi. org/10.1097/01.ccm.0000151070.56915.22
  • Kılıç, S. (2006). Biyolojik Silah Olarak Toksinler. Türk Hijyen ve Deneysel Biyoloji Dergisi. 63, (1-2-3), ss. 85 – 100.
  • Kim, H-K., Philipp, E. ve Chung, H. (2017). North Korea’s Biological Weapons Program: Known and Unknown. Cambridge: Belfer Center.
  • Littlewood, J., (2005). The Biological Weapons Convention: A Failed Revolution, Aldershot, UK. Ashgate, ss. 250.
  • Lofti, M., Hamlin ve M.R., Rezaei, N. (2020). COVID-19: Transmission, Prevention, And Potential Therapeutic Opportunities, Clinica Chimica Acta. 508, ss.254-266. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cca.2020.05.044
  • Mark Wheelis, L. R. (2006). Historical Context and Overview. L. R. Mark Wheelis içinde, Deadly Cultures: Biological Weapons since 1945, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, ss.1-9
  • Martin, J.W., Christopher, G.W. ve Eitzen, E.M. (2007). History of Bilological Weapons: From Poisoned Darts to Intentional Epidemics. Medical Aspects of Biological Warfare.
  • Nie, J. B. (2020). In the Shadow Of Biological Warfare: Conspiracy Theories On The Origins Of COVID-19 And Enhancing Global Governance Of Biosafety As A Matter Of Urgency. Journal Of Bioethical İnquiry. 17, (4), ss. 567–574. doi: https://doi. org/10.1007/s11673-020-10025-8
  • Nixdorff, M. R. (2009). An Introduction to Biological Weapons. K. M. Nixdorff içinde, BWPP Biological Weapons Reader. Genava: BWPP. ss. 1-12.
  • NTI. (2021). Biological. NTI: https://www.nti.org/learn/countries/iraq/biological/, E.T. 27 Mart 2021.
  • Sathua, K., ve Flora, S. J. S. (2020). Bacterial Biological Warfare Agents. Handbook on Biological Warfare Preparedness, ss. 13–31. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-812026-2.00002-5
  • Sweeney, D. A., Hicks, C. W., Cui, X., Li, Y., ve Eichacker, P. Q. (2011). Anthrax Infection. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 184, (12), ss. 1333–1341. doi:10.1164/rccm.201102-0209ci
  • Pal, M. , Tsegaye, M. , Girzaw, F. , Bedada, H. , Godishala, V. ve Kandi, V. (2017). An Overview on Biological Weapons and Bioterrorism. American Journal of Biomedical Research. 5, (2), ss.24-34.
There are 36 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language Turkish
Subjects Computer Forensics, Environmental Crime, State Crime
Journal Section Research Articles
Authors

Simge Varlık 0000-0001-7664-0037

Orhan Çifçi 0000-0002-5746-4258

Publication Date December 31, 2021
Published in Issue Year 2021 Volume: 3 Issue: 1-2

Cite

APA Varlık, S., & Çifçi, O. (2021). Biyolojik Silahların Gelişimi ve Uluslararası Hukuktaki Yeri. Adli Bilimler Ve Suç Araştırmaları, 3(1-2), 46-72.