Etkileşimli Hikayeciliğin Temelleri

Abstract

Etkileşimli hikayecilik sistemleri sadece teknolojinin niteliklerine veya yapay zeka teknikleri, planlama kuralları, hikaye temsili gibi iletişim ortamının karakteristik özelliklerine odaklanmamalıdır. İletilen mesajların önceki mesaj alışverişleriyle ilişkisi, oyuncu tarafından manipüle edilen nitelik sayısı veya oyuncunun mesajlar üzerindeki kontrolü gibi bilgisayar ortamlı iletişim süreçleri de teknik bileşenler kadar önemlidir. Bir bilgisayar oyununda kullanıcı memnuniyetini arttırmanın yolu oyun deneyimini ve ilgili bilgisayar ortamlı iletişim sürecini kişiselleştirmekten geçmektedir. Bu amaca ulaşmak ve 'neyin' 'nasıl' kişiselleştirilmesi gerektiğini göstermek için, bu makale öncelikle etkileşim kavramının sorunlarını tartışmakta, ardından aynı bağlamda etkileşimli hikayecilik sistemlerini incelemektedir. Masaüstü rol yapma oyunlarından yola çıkarak 'neyin' kişiselleştirilmesi gerektiğini inceledikten sonra bir motivasyon taslağı ortaya atarak kişiselleştirmenin 'nasıl' yapılması gerektiğini ifade etmektedir.

Keywords

• etkileşimli hikayecilik
• oyun deneyimi
• rol yapma oyunları

Fundamentals of Interactive Storytelling

Abstract

The focus of interactive storytelling should not only be on the attributes of the technology or characteristics of the medium, such as the AI techniques, planning formalisms, story representations, etc. but also on the computer-mediated communication processes, such as the relatedness of transmitted messages with previous exchanges of information, the number of attributes to be manipulated by the player, or the level of player control on the messages. It is argued that an approach to maximize player enjoyment in a computer game is to customize/personalize the gaming experience and the associated computer-mediated communication processes. To this aim and to provide answers to “how” and “what” should be customized, the article first explores the problematic notions of interactivity and then frame the discussion in the context of interactive storytelling systems. Secondly, it analyses table-top role-playing games RPGs - the live counterpart of computerized interactive storytelling systems – in an attempt to find “what” to customize. In particular, it focuses on the Dungeon Master whose role in co-ordinating human-to-human communication process of interactive storytelling provides valuable insights into how to handle the human-to-machine/game communication process. Finally, the article proposes a framework to explain “how” to customize for maximum player enjoyment and optimal game experience within an interactive storytelling system.

Keywords

• interactive storytelling
• gameplay experience
• role-playing games

References

1. Barber, H. and Kudenko, D. (2008). Generation of Dilemma-based Interactive Narratives with a Changeable Story Goal, in: Proceedings of Second International Conference on Intelligent Technologies for Interactive Entertainment (INTETAIN).
2. Bartle, R.A. (2004). Designing Virtual Worlds. New Riders Publishing.
3. Bates, J. (1992). Virtual Reality, Art, and Entertainment. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 1 (1), 133-138.
4. Blanchard, A. and Markus, M.L. (2004). The experienced ‘sense’ of a virtual community: characteristics and processes. Database for Advances in Information Systems 35 (1), 65- 79.
5. Bostan, B. (2009). Player Motivations: A Psychological Perspective. ACM Computers in Entertainment 7 (2), 22:1-22:26.
6. Bostan, B., and Kaplancali, U. (2009). Explorations in Player Motivations: Game Mechanics, in: Proceedings of GAMEON 2009, Duesseldorf, Germany.
7. Bostan, B., and Kaplancali, U. (2010). Explorations in Player Motivations: Game Mods, in Proceedings of GAMEON‐ASIA 2010 Conference, Shanghai, China.
8. Bostan, B., and Ogut, S. (2009). Game Challenges and Difficulty Levels: Lessons Learned From RPGs, in Proceedings of ISAGA 2009 Conference, Singapore.

9. Bryce, J. and Rutter, J. (2006). Understanding Digital Games. London: Sage.
10. Castranova, E. (2007). Exodus to the Virtual World: How online fun is changing reality. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
11. Cavazza, M., Charles, F., and Mead, S.J. (2002). Interacting with Virtual Characters in Interactive Storytelling, in: Proceedings of the First ACM Joint Conference on Autonomous Agents and MultiAgent Systems, Bologna, Italy, pp. 318-325.
12. Charles, F., Lozano, M., Mead, S.J., Bisquerra, A.F., and Cavazza, M. (2003). Planning Formalisms and Authoring in Interactive Storytelling, in: Proceedings of TIDSEʹ03: Technologies for Interactive Digital Storytelling and Entertainment, Darmstadt.
13. Chiou, A. and Wong, K.W. (2008). Player Adaptive Entertainment Computing (PAEC): Mechanism to Model User Satisfaction by Using Neuro Linguistic Programming (NLP) Techniques, in: Proceedings of 2008 IEEE Symposium on Computational Intelligence and Games, Perth, Australia, 343-349.
14. Christian, D.B., Riedl, M.O.,and Young, R.M. (2002).Conversation starters: Using spatial context to initiate dialogue in first person perspective games, in: Proceedings of the 2002 AAAI Spring Symposium on Artificial Intelligence and Interactive Entertainment.
15. Crawford, C. (2005). Chris Crawford on Interactive Storytelling. New Riders.
16. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience. Harper Perennial.
17. Dena, C. (2008). Emerging Participatory Culture Practices: Player-Created Tiers in Alternate Reality Games. Convergence: The International Journal of Research into New Media Technologies, 14, 41-57.
18. Dovey, J. and Kennedy, H.W. (2006). Game Cultures: Computer Games as New Media. Open University Press, Maidenhead & Milton Keynes.
19. Ducheneaut, N. and Moore, R.J. (2004). The social side of gaming: A study of interaction patterns in a massively multiplayer online game, in: Proceedings of the 2004 ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work, New York.
20. El-Nasr, M.S. (2007). Interaction, Narrative, and Drama Creating an Adaptive Interactive Narrative using Performance Arts Theories, Interaction Studies 8 (2), 209-240.
21. Ermi, L., and Määyrä, F. (2004). Player-Centred Game Design: Experiences in Using Scenario Study to Inform Mobile Game Design, in: Game Design Research Symposium and Workshop, Copenhagen.
22. Heeter, C. (1992). Being there: The subjective experience of presence. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments 1 (2), 262–271.
23. Heim, M. (1998). Virtual Realism. Oxford University Press, New York.
24. Huang, S-C. (2005). Semiotics and Information Theory: The Value of User-Centered Approach and a Theoretical Framework of Human-Computer Interaction Design for Computer-Mediated Communication, Master Report presented to the Graduate School of University of Texas at Austin.
25. Jensen, J.F. (1998). Interactivity: Tracing a New Concept in Media and Communication Studies. Nordicom Review, 19 (1), 185-204.
26. Jonsson, F. (2006). Performing the Self in Cyberspace: A study of Young Players Styles of Self-Presentation and Identity Performances, in: The Online Game World TIBIA, 9th Nordic Youth Research Information Symposium, Stockholm.
27. Kelso, M., Weyhrauch, P., and Bates, J. (1993). Dramatic Presence. Presence: The Journal of Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 2 (1), 1-15.
28. Kraut, R., Kiesler, S., Boneva, B., Cummings, J.N., Helgeson, V., and Crawford, A.M. (2002). Internet paradox revisited. Journal of Social Issues 58 (1), 49-74.
29. Kraut, R., Patterson, M., Lundmark, V., Kiesler, S., Mukophadhyay, T., and Scherlis, W. (1998). Internet paradox: A social technology that reduces social involvement and psychological well-being? American Psychologist 53 (9), 1017-1031.
30. Lessiter, J., Freeman, J., Keogh, E., and Davidoff, J. (2001). A Cross-Media Presence Questionnaire: The ITCSense of Presence Inventory. Presence: Teleoperators, and Virtual Environments 10 (3), 282-297.
31. Lievrouw, L. and Livingstone, S. (Eds.). (2002). Handbook of New Media: Social Shaping and Social Consequences. London: Sage.
32. Lindley, C.A., and Sennersten, C. (2006). Game Play Schemas: From Player Analysis to Adaptive Game Mechanics, in: Joint International Conference on CyberGames and Interactive Entertainment (CGIE2006), Special Session on Game Artificial Intelligence, Perth, Western Australia.
33. Lombard, M. and Ditton, T. (1997). At the heart of it all: The concept of presence. Journal of Computer Mediated‐Communication 3 (2), [online]. Available from: http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol3/issue2/lombard.html.
34. Louchart, S., and Aylett, R. (2003). Towards a narrative theory of virtual reality. Virtual Reality 7 (1), 2-9.
35. Magerko, B. (2005). Story Representation and Interactive Drama, in: Proceedings of the 1st Conf. On Artificial Intelligence and Interactive Digital Entertainment.
36. Malone, T.W., and Lepper, M.R. (1987). Making learning fun: A taxonomy of intrinsic motivations for learning, in: Snow, R.E., and Farr, M.J. (Eds.), Aptitude, Learning, and instruction: Conative and Affective Process Analyses, Lawrence Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, pp. 223-253.
37. Mateas, M. (1997). An Oz-Centric Review of Interactive Drama and Believable Agents, in: AI Today: Recent Trends and Developments. Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 1600, pp. 297-328.
38. Mateas, M. (2000). A Neo-Aristotelian Theory of Interactive Drama, in Proceedings of AAAI Spring Symposium on AI and Interactive Entertainment.
39. Mateas, M., and Stern, A. (2001). Interactive Drama. A Thesis Proposal, Ph.D. thesis, Pittsburgh, Carnegie Mellon University.
40. McMillan, S. (2002). Exploring models of interactivity from multiple research traditions: users, documents and systems, in: Lievrouw, L. and Livingstone, S. (Eds), The handbook of the new media. The social shaping and consequences of ICTs. London: Sage, pp. 163-182.
41. Mulligan, J. and Patrovsky, B. (2003). Developing Online Games. An Insiderʹs Guide. Indianapolis, IN: New Riders.
42. Murray, H.A. (1938). Explorations in Personality. Oxford University Press.
43. Nareyek, A. (2007). Game AI is Dead. Long Live Game AI! IEEE Intelligent Systems, 22 (1), 9-11.
44. Nelson, M.J., Roberts, D.L., Isbell, C.L., and Mateas, M. (2006). Reinforcement Learning for Declarative Optimization Based Drama Management, in: Proceedings of the Fifth International Joint Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems (AAMAS). Newman, J. (2008). Playing with Videogames. London: Routledge.
45. Peinado, F., and Gervas, P. (2004). Transferring game mastering laws to interactive digital storytelling, in: 2nd International Conference on Technologies for Interactive Digital Storytelling and Entertainment (TIDSE 2004), Darmstad, Germany: Springer, 1–12.
46. Peinado, F. and Gervás, (2007). P. Automatic Direction of Automatic Storytelling: Formalizing the Game Master Paradigm, in: Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Virtual Storytelling: Using Virtual Reality Technologies for Storytelling (ICVS).
47. Pohjola, M. (2004). Autonomous Identities: Immersion as a Tool for Exploring, Empowering and Emancipating Identities, in: Montola, M., and Stenros, J. (Eds.), Beyond Role and Play: tools, toys and theory for harnessing the imagination. Ropeconry, Helsinki, pp. 81-96.
48. Rafaeli, S. (1988). Interactivity: From New Media to Communication, in: Hawkins, R.P., Wiemann, J.M., and Pingree, S. (Eds.) Advancing Communication Science: Merging Mass and Interpersonal Processes. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, pp.110-134.
49. Rafaeli, S. and Ariel, Y. (2007). Assessing Interactivity in Computer-Mediated Research, in: Joinson, A.N., McKenna, K.Y.A., Postmes, T., and Rieps U.D. (Eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Internet Psychology. Oxford University Press, pp. 71-88.
50. Rankin, Y.A., McNeal, M.,. Shute, M.W, and Gooch, B. (2008). User centered game design: evaluating massive multiplayer online role playing games for secondary language acquisition, in: Proceedings at the ACM SIGGRAPH, 43-49.
51. Roberts, D.L., Strong, C.R., and Isbell, C.L. (2007). Using Feature Value Distributions to Estimate Player Satisfaction Through an Author’s Eyes, in: Proceedings of the AAAI 2007 Fall Symposium on Intelligent Narrative Technologies.
52. Rogers, C. (1951). Client‐centered therapy, Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin.
53. Rogers, E.M. (1986). Communication Technology. Free Press, New York.
54. Salen, K. and Zimmerman, E. (2003). Rules of Play: Game Design Fundamentals, Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
55. Schreiber, M., Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, M.V., and Bruder, R. (2009). New Interaction Concepts by Using the Wii Remote, in: Proceedings of Human‐Computer Interaction, Novel Interaction Methods and Techniques, 13th International Conference, Part II, pp. 261- 270.
56. Schubert, T., Friedman, F., and Regenbrecht, H. (2001). The experience of presence: Factor analytic insights. Presence: Teleoperators, and Virtual Environments 10 (3), 266-281.
57. Sellers, M. (2006). Designing the experience of interactive play, in: Vorderer, P., Bryant, J. (Eds.). Playing video games: Motives, responses, and consequences. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, pp. 9-22.
58. Shedletsky, L., and Aitken, J. (2004). Human Communication on the Internet. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon/Longman.
59. Slater, M. and Wilbur, S. (1997). A framework for immersive virtual environments (FIVE): Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments 6 (6), 603-616.
60. Sotamaa, O. (2003). Computer game modding, intermediality, and participatory culture, in Proceedings of New Media? New Theories? New Methods? Innovating Media and Communication Research, [online]. Available from: http://old.imv.au.dk/eng/academic/pdf_files/Sotamaa.pdf
61. Szuprowicz, B. (1995). Multimedia networking. New York: McGraw-Hill.
62. Steuer, J. (1992). Defining virtual reality: Dimensions determining telepresence. Journal of Communication 42 (4), 73-93.
63. Sundar, S.S. (2007). Social psychology of interactivity in human-website interaction, in Joinson, A.N., McKenna, K.Y.A., Postmes, T., and Rieps, U.D. (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Internet Psychology. Oxford University Press, pp. 89-102.
64. Sweetser, P., and Wyeth, P. (2005). GameFlow: A model for evaluating player enjoyment in games. ACM Computers in Entertainment 3 (3), 1–24.
65. Szilas, N. (2003). IDTension: A Narrative Engine for Interactive Drama, in: Proceedings of the Technologies for Interactive Digital Storytelling and Entertainment (TIDSE) Conference, 187-203.
66. Thue, D., Bulitko, V., Spetch, M., and Wasylishen, E. (2007). Interactive Storytelling: A Player Modelling Approach, in: Proceedings of Artificial Intelligence and Interactive Digital Entertainment Conference (AIIDE), Stanford, California, 43-48.
67. Turkle, S. (1984). The Second Self: Computers and the Human Spirit. Simon & Schuster, New York.
68. Tychsen, A. Hitchens, M., Brolund, T., and Kavakli, M. (2005). The Game Master, in: Proceedings of the Interactive Entertainment Conference, Sydney, Australia, 215-222.
69. Wong, C., Kim, J., Han, E., and Jung, K. (2009). Human-centered modeling for style-based adaptive games, Journal of Zhejiang University‐Science A 10 (4), 530-534.
70. Yee, N. (2006). Motivations of play in online games. CyberPsychology & Behavior 9 (6), 772– 775.