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Dünyada bu kadar Mongongo cevizi varken neden ekelim?

Year 2007, Issue: 22, 41 - 73, 01.04.2007

Abstract

Son otuz yılda avcı-toplayıcı yaşam biçimine dair algının, Hobbes’un izinden gidercesine “münzevi, fakir, nahoş, hayvansı ve kısa” olarak betimlendiği bir resimden “ilk refah” toplumu” olarak ifade edilen bir imgeye dönüşmesi tarıma geçişin ardındaki saik ve dürtülerin araştırılma ve anlaşılmasını antropolog, arkeolog ve evrim bilimciler arasındaki hararetli tartışmaları yatıştırmanın Kutsal Kâsesi haline getirmiştir. Bu yazı, bir Kung kabilesi erkeğinin şaşkınlıkla sorduğu ve bir anlamda bu tartışmanın hoş bir ifadesi olarak düşünülebilecek olan “Bu kadar Mongongo cevizi varken onları neden ekelim ki?” sualinin cevabını yansıtan hipotezlerin değerlendirilmesini amaçlamaktadır. Kelimelendirilmeleri tartışmaya verilen cevabın ana temasını oluşturduğu söylenebilecek olan ve aşağıda ele alınan bu yedi hipotez, sırayla: kültürel ilerleme, çevre değişikliği, nüfus baskısı, müşterek / karşılıklı verimleşme, sosyoekonomik rekabet, bağımlılık ve davranışsal ekoloji (optimal toplama) hipotezleridir

References

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  • Binford, L.R. 1968. Post-Pleistocene adaptations. In Binford S.R., Binford, L.R. (Eds.) New Perspectives in Archeology. Chicago: Adline Press 313-341.
  • Boulding, K. 1956. General Systems Theory-The Skeleton of Science. Management Science 2(3): 197-208
  • Braidwood, Robert. 1964, 1975. Prehistoric Man. Chicago: Chicago Natural History Museum
  • Brantl, V., Tescemacher, H., Henschen, A. & Lottspeich, F. 1979. Novel opiod peptides derived from acasein (beta-casomorphins), Hpppe-Seyler’s Zeitschrift fur Physsiologische Chemie 360:1211-6.
  • Childe, V.G. 1951. Man Makes Himself. Watts, London.
  • Chagnon, N. 1983. Yanomamo: The Fierce People. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Wilson.
  • Clark, P.U, R.B. Alley, and D. Pollard. 1999. Northern Hemisphere Ice-Sheet Influences on Global Cliamte Change. Science 286:1104-1111.
  • Cohen, M.N. 1977. The Food Crisis in Prehistory: Overpopulation and the Origins of Agriculture. New Haven: Yale University Press.
  • Darwin, C. 1902 [1874]. The Descent of Man and Selection and Selection in Relation Sex. American Home Library, New York.
  • Diamond, J. 1999. Guns, Germs, and Steel. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.
  • Ditlevsen, P.D., H. Svensmark, and S. Johnsen. 1996. Contrasting Atmospheric and Climate
  • Dynamics of the Last-glacial and Holocene Periods. Nature 379:810-812.
  • Flannery, K.V. 1969. Origins and ecological effects in early domstication in Iran and the Near
  • East. In. Ucko, P.J. & Dimbleby, G.W. (Eds.) The Domestication and Exploitation of Plants and Animals. Chicago: Aldina 73-100.
  • ______. 1973. The origins of agriculture. Annual Review of Anthropology 2: 271- 310.
  • Glassow, Michael A. 1978. “The Concept of Carrying Capacity in the Study of Culture Process.” In Advances in Arheological Method and Theory, Vol. 1, (Ed.) M.B. Schiffer, pp. 31 -48
  • Greksch, G., Schwiger, C. & Matthies H. 1981. Evidence for analgesic activity of beta- casomorphin in rats. Neuroscience Letters 27:325-28.
  • ______. 1989. Health and the Rise of Civilization.New Haven: Yale University Press.
  • GRIP (Greenland Ice Core Project Members). 1993. Climate Instability During the Last Interglacial Period Recorded in the GRIP Ice Core. Nature 364:203-207.
  • Hayden, B. 2003. Were luxury goods the first domestiicates? Ethnoarcheological perspectives from Southeast Asia. World Archeology 34: 458-470
  • Heubner, F., Lienman, K. Rubineo, R. & Walla, J. 1984. Demonstration of high opioid-like activity in isolated peptides from wheat gluten hydrolysates, Peptides 5:1139-47
  • Hole, F., K.V. Flannery, and J.A. Neeley (Eds.). 1969. Prehistory and Human Ecology of the Del Luran Plain. Ann Arbour: University of Michigan Press.
  • Hurtado, A.M., K. Hawkes, K. Hill ve H. Kaplan. 1985. Female Subsistence Strategies Among Áche Hunter-Gatherers of Eastern Paraguay. Human Ecology. 13: 1-28. http://courses.washington.edu/anth457/agorigin.htm. 2007
  • Keegan, W.F. 1986. The optimal foraging analysis of horticultural production. American Anthropologist 88: 92.107.
  • Kenyon, K. 1957. Digging up Jericho: The Results of the Jericho Excavations 1952 –1956. New York: Praeger.
  • Layton, R., Foley R., Williams E. 1991. The transition between hunting and gathering and the specialized husbandry of resources: a socioecological approach. Current Anthropology 32: 255-274.
  • Lee, R.B. & DeVore (eds.). 1968. Man the Hunter. Chicago: Aldine.
  • Lee, R.B. 1979. The Kung San: Men, Women, and Work in a Foraging Society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • MacNeish, R.S. 1964. “The Food Gathering and Incipient Agriculture Stage of Prehistoric Middle America.” In Handbook of American Indians. Vol. 1. R.C. West (Ed.) pp. 413 –
  • Austin: University of Texas Press.
  • ______. 1967. “A Sumary of Subsistence.” In Environment and Subsistence: The Prehistory of the Tehuacan Valley. Vol. 1. D.S. Byers (Ed.) pp. 290 – 309. Austin: University of Texas Press.
  • ______. 1991. The Origins of Agriculture and Settled Life. University of Oklahoma Press: Norman.
  • Mycroft, F.J., Wei, E.T., Bernardin, J.E. & Kasarda, D.D. 1982. M1F-like sequences in milk and wheat proteins. New England Journal of Medicine 301:895.
  • Panksepp, J., Normansell, L., Siviy, S., Rossi, J & Zolovick, A. 1984. Casomorphins reduce separation distress in chicks. Peptides %:829-83.
  • Price, T.D. (Ed.) 2000. Europe’s First Farmers. New York: Cambridge University Press.
  • Price, T.D. & Gebauer, A.B. 1995. Last unters, first farmers: new perspectves on the prehistoric transition to agriculture. School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series. Santa Fe: School of American Research Press.
  • Richerson, Peter J., Robert Boyd, and Robert L. Bettinger. 2001. “Was Agriculture Impossible
  • During the Pleistocene But Mandatory During the Holocene? A Climate Change Hypothesis”. American Antiquity 66: 387 – 411.
  • Rindos, David. 1984. The Origins of Agriculture: An Evolutionary Perspecive.
  • Orlando: Florida: Academic Press.
  • Sen ML, tercüme. 1976. The Ramayana of Valmiki, 602. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharial.
  • Truswell, A.S. ve J. Hansen. 1976. “Medical Research Among the Kung.” In Kalahari Hunter Gatherers, edited by R.B. Lee and I. DeVore. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
  • Wadley, G. & Martin, A. 1993. The Origins od Agriculture? A biological perspective and a new hypothesis. Australian Biologist 6:96-105
  • Wintwrhalder, Bruce. 1993. “Work Resources, and Population”. Man 28: 321 – 340.
  • Winterhalder, Bruce and Carol Goland. 1993. “On Population, Foraging Efficiency, and Plant Domestication.” Current Anthropology 34: 710 – 715
  • Winterhalder, Bruce and Carol Goland. 1997. “An Evolutionary Perspective on Diet Choice, Risk, and Plant Domestication.” In Kristen J. Gremillan, (Ed.). Peoples, Plants, and Landscapes: Studies in Paleoethnobotany. Tuscaloosa, Al: University of Alabama Press.
  • Winterhalder, Bruce and Douglas Kennett. 2006. “Behavioral Ecology and the Transition From Hunting and Gathering to Agriculture.” In Behavioral Ecology and the Transition to Agriculture, (Eds.) D. Kenet and B. Winterhalder, pp. 1 – 21. Berkeley: University of California Press.
  • Wright, H.E., Jr. 1977. Environmental Change and the Origins of Agriculture In the Old an New Worlds. In Origins of Agriculture, (Ed.) C.A. Reed, pp. 281- 318. Mouton, The Hague.
  • Yellen, J. 1977. Archeological Approaches to the Present: Models for Reconstructing the Past. New York: Academic Press.
  • Zioudrou, C. Streaty, R. & Klee, W. 1979. Opioid peptides derived from food proteins: the exorphins. Journal of Biochemistry 254:244-59.
  • Zvelebil, M. & Dolukhanov, P. 1991. The transition to farming in Eastern and Northern Europe. Journal of World Prehistory 5:233-278.

WHY SHOULD WE PLANT WHEN THERE ARE SO MANY MONGONGO NUTS IN THE WORLD?

Year 2007, Issue: 22, 41 - 73, 01.04.2007

Abstract

Due to the shift in the perception of the hunter gatherer life style from an image which was portrayed in a Hobbesian manner as “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short” to a society described as “the first affluent” in the last three decades, the quest for motives or the reasons behind the transition to agriculture has been the Holy Grail to soothe the heated debate among anthropologists, archeologists and evolutionary scientists. This paper is aimed at reviewing the hypotheses, which in a way attempt to answer one of Kung tribesmen’s question: “Why should we plant when there are so many mongongo nuts in the world?” Given that the wording might give a clue about the crux of the argument the seven hypotheses taken up below can be named as cultural progression, environmental change, population pressure, mutual evolution, socioeconomic competition, dependency and behavioral ecology (or optimal foraging)

References

  • Barker, G. 1985. Transition to Farming. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Binford, L.R. 1968. Post-Pleistocene adaptations. In Binford S.R., Binford, L.R. (Eds.) New Perspectives in Archeology. Chicago: Adline Press 313-341.
  • Boulding, K. 1956. General Systems Theory-The Skeleton of Science. Management Science 2(3): 197-208
  • Braidwood, Robert. 1964, 1975. Prehistoric Man. Chicago: Chicago Natural History Museum
  • Brantl, V., Tescemacher, H., Henschen, A. & Lottspeich, F. 1979. Novel opiod peptides derived from acasein (beta-casomorphins), Hpppe-Seyler’s Zeitschrift fur Physsiologische Chemie 360:1211-6.
  • Childe, V.G. 1951. Man Makes Himself. Watts, London.
  • Chagnon, N. 1983. Yanomamo: The Fierce People. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Wilson.
  • Clark, P.U, R.B. Alley, and D. Pollard. 1999. Northern Hemisphere Ice-Sheet Influences on Global Cliamte Change. Science 286:1104-1111.
  • Cohen, M.N. 1977. The Food Crisis in Prehistory: Overpopulation and the Origins of Agriculture. New Haven: Yale University Press.
  • Darwin, C. 1902 [1874]. The Descent of Man and Selection and Selection in Relation Sex. American Home Library, New York.
  • Diamond, J. 1999. Guns, Germs, and Steel. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.
  • Ditlevsen, P.D., H. Svensmark, and S. Johnsen. 1996. Contrasting Atmospheric and Climate
  • Dynamics of the Last-glacial and Holocene Periods. Nature 379:810-812.
  • Flannery, K.V. 1969. Origins and ecological effects in early domstication in Iran and the Near
  • East. In. Ucko, P.J. & Dimbleby, G.W. (Eds.) The Domestication and Exploitation of Plants and Animals. Chicago: Aldina 73-100.
  • ______. 1973. The origins of agriculture. Annual Review of Anthropology 2: 271- 310.
  • Glassow, Michael A. 1978. “The Concept of Carrying Capacity in the Study of Culture Process.” In Advances in Arheological Method and Theory, Vol. 1, (Ed.) M.B. Schiffer, pp. 31 -48
  • Greksch, G., Schwiger, C. & Matthies H. 1981. Evidence for analgesic activity of beta- casomorphin in rats. Neuroscience Letters 27:325-28.
  • ______. 1989. Health and the Rise of Civilization.New Haven: Yale University Press.
  • GRIP (Greenland Ice Core Project Members). 1993. Climate Instability During the Last Interglacial Period Recorded in the GRIP Ice Core. Nature 364:203-207.
  • Hayden, B. 2003. Were luxury goods the first domestiicates? Ethnoarcheological perspectives from Southeast Asia. World Archeology 34: 458-470
  • Heubner, F., Lienman, K. Rubineo, R. & Walla, J. 1984. Demonstration of high opioid-like activity in isolated peptides from wheat gluten hydrolysates, Peptides 5:1139-47
  • Hole, F., K.V. Flannery, and J.A. Neeley (Eds.). 1969. Prehistory and Human Ecology of the Del Luran Plain. Ann Arbour: University of Michigan Press.
  • Hurtado, A.M., K. Hawkes, K. Hill ve H. Kaplan. 1985. Female Subsistence Strategies Among Áche Hunter-Gatherers of Eastern Paraguay. Human Ecology. 13: 1-28. http://courses.washington.edu/anth457/agorigin.htm. 2007
  • Keegan, W.F. 1986. The optimal foraging analysis of horticultural production. American Anthropologist 88: 92.107.
  • Kenyon, K. 1957. Digging up Jericho: The Results of the Jericho Excavations 1952 –1956. New York: Praeger.
  • Layton, R., Foley R., Williams E. 1991. The transition between hunting and gathering and the specialized husbandry of resources: a socioecological approach. Current Anthropology 32: 255-274.
  • Lee, R.B. & DeVore (eds.). 1968. Man the Hunter. Chicago: Aldine.
  • Lee, R.B. 1979. The Kung San: Men, Women, and Work in a Foraging Society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • MacNeish, R.S. 1964. “The Food Gathering and Incipient Agriculture Stage of Prehistoric Middle America.” In Handbook of American Indians. Vol. 1. R.C. West (Ed.) pp. 413 –
  • Austin: University of Texas Press.
  • ______. 1967. “A Sumary of Subsistence.” In Environment and Subsistence: The Prehistory of the Tehuacan Valley. Vol. 1. D.S. Byers (Ed.) pp. 290 – 309. Austin: University of Texas Press.
  • ______. 1991. The Origins of Agriculture and Settled Life. University of Oklahoma Press: Norman.
  • Mycroft, F.J., Wei, E.T., Bernardin, J.E. & Kasarda, D.D. 1982. M1F-like sequences in milk and wheat proteins. New England Journal of Medicine 301:895.
  • Panksepp, J., Normansell, L., Siviy, S., Rossi, J & Zolovick, A. 1984. Casomorphins reduce separation distress in chicks. Peptides %:829-83.
  • Price, T.D. (Ed.) 2000. Europe’s First Farmers. New York: Cambridge University Press.
  • Price, T.D. & Gebauer, A.B. 1995. Last unters, first farmers: new perspectves on the prehistoric transition to agriculture. School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series. Santa Fe: School of American Research Press.
  • Richerson, Peter J., Robert Boyd, and Robert L. Bettinger. 2001. “Was Agriculture Impossible
  • During the Pleistocene But Mandatory During the Holocene? A Climate Change Hypothesis”. American Antiquity 66: 387 – 411.
  • Rindos, David. 1984. The Origins of Agriculture: An Evolutionary Perspecive.
  • Orlando: Florida: Academic Press.
  • Sen ML, tercüme. 1976. The Ramayana of Valmiki, 602. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharial.
  • Truswell, A.S. ve J. Hansen. 1976. “Medical Research Among the Kung.” In Kalahari Hunter Gatherers, edited by R.B. Lee and I. DeVore. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
  • Wadley, G. & Martin, A. 1993. The Origins od Agriculture? A biological perspective and a new hypothesis. Australian Biologist 6:96-105
  • Wintwrhalder, Bruce. 1993. “Work Resources, and Population”. Man 28: 321 – 340.
  • Winterhalder, Bruce and Carol Goland. 1993. “On Population, Foraging Efficiency, and Plant Domestication.” Current Anthropology 34: 710 – 715
  • Winterhalder, Bruce and Carol Goland. 1997. “An Evolutionary Perspective on Diet Choice, Risk, and Plant Domestication.” In Kristen J. Gremillan, (Ed.). Peoples, Plants, and Landscapes: Studies in Paleoethnobotany. Tuscaloosa, Al: University of Alabama Press.
  • Winterhalder, Bruce and Douglas Kennett. 2006. “Behavioral Ecology and the Transition From Hunting and Gathering to Agriculture.” In Behavioral Ecology and the Transition to Agriculture, (Eds.) D. Kenet and B. Winterhalder, pp. 1 – 21. Berkeley: University of California Press.
  • Wright, H.E., Jr. 1977. Environmental Change and the Origins of Agriculture In the Old an New Worlds. In Origins of Agriculture, (Ed.) C.A. Reed, pp. 281- 318. Mouton, The Hague.
  • Yellen, J. 1977. Archeological Approaches to the Present: Models for Reconstructing the Past. New York: Academic Press.
  • Zioudrou, C. Streaty, R. & Klee, W. 1979. Opioid peptides derived from food proteins: the exorphins. Journal of Biochemistry 254:244-59.
  • Zvelebil, M. & Dolukhanov, P. 1991. The transition to farming in Eastern and Northern Europe. Journal of World Prehistory 5:233-278.
There are 52 citations in total.

Details

Other ID JA72KR47CG
Journal Section Research Articles
Authors

Atila Çelik This is me

Publication Date April 1, 2007
Submission Date April 1, 2007
Published in Issue Year 2007 Issue: 22

Cite

APA Çelik, A. (2007). WHY SHOULD WE PLANT WHEN THERE ARE SO MANY MONGONGO NUTS IN THE WORLD?. Anthropology(22), 41-73.

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