Analysis of The Climate Characteristics in Kuşadası Destination for the Vulnerability of Recreation and Tourism Activities

Abstract

Climate can both pose potential and obstacles for recreational and tourism activities. Climate characteristics which affect visitors’ pleasure and satisfaction turned out to have pressure on the activities in tourism value chain. Since climate characteristics affect tourism types, the length of the seasons and the diversity of activities, they are also important for tourism professionals. Although information about the relationship between climate change and tourism is crucial for ensuring sustainable tourism development, the number of studies focusing on the topic is limited. The aim of this study is to determine the impacts of the changes in climate characteristics and to offer suggestions for tourism in Kuşadası, one of Turkey’s important destinations. In the study, the differences in climate elements employed by two tourism–climate indices (TCI and CTIS) and the index values were compared in two study periods and the temporal changes in tourism suitability were determined. Results show that the tourism suitability decreases in summer months and shifts to the spring and autumn months in terms of temperature and thermal comfort. Therefore, the paper provides useful insights on the development/diversification of tourism and recreation activities, planning, programming and promotion of their locations and times.

Keywords

• Tourism-climate relation
• Climate elements
• Climate change
• Tourism destination
• Thermal comfort

Kuşadası Destinasyonunun İklim Özelliklerinin Dinlence ve Turizm Faaliyetlerinin Etkilenebilirliği Açısından Değerlendirilmesi

Abstract

İklim, dinlence ve turizmfaaliyetleri açısından hem potansiyel hem de engelteşkil edebilmektedir. Ziyaretçilerin aldıkları hazzı ve dolayısıyla memnuniyetlerini etkileyen iklim özellikleri; turizm değer zincirindeki faaliyetleri baskılar hâle gelmiştir. İklim özellikleri; turizm türlerini, sezon uzunluklarını ve aktivite çeşitliliğini etkilediği için turizm profesyonelleri açısından da önemlidir. İklim değişikliği ve turizm ilişkisi hakkındaki bilgiler, sürdürülebilir turizmin gelişimi için gerekli olsa da konuyla ilgili çalışma sayısı sınırlıdır. Bu çalışmanın amacı; Türkiye’nin önemli destinasyonlarından olan Kuşadası’nda, iklim elemanlarındaki değişimin turizm açısından etkilerini belirleyerek önerilerde bulunmaktır. Çalışmada; iki turizm iklim indeksinin (TCI ve CTIS) kullandığı iklim elemanları ve indeks değerlerindeki farklar, iki dönem özelinde karşılaştırılarak turizm açısından uygunluğun zamansal değişimi tespit edilmiştir. Sonuçlar; yaz aylarında sıcaklık ve termal konfor açısından uygunluğun azaldığını, uygun koşulların ilkbahar ve sonbahar aylarına kaydığını işaret etmektedir. Çalışma turizm sektörü paydaşları ve karar vericileri için turizm ve dinlence aktivitelerinin farklılaşması, konum ve zamanlarının planlanması, programlanması ve teşvik edilmesi konularında yararlı bilgiler sunmaktadır.

Keywords

• Turizm-iklim ilişkisi
• İklim elemanları
• İklim değişikliği
• Turizm destinasyonu
• Termal konfor

References

1. Aibar, A., Bois, J., Generelo, E, Bengoechea, E., Paillard, T. ve Zaragoza. J. (2015). Effect of Weather, School Transport, and Perceived Neighborhood Characteristics on Moderate to Vigorous Physical Activity Levels of Adolescents from Two European Cities, Environment and Behavior, 47 (4): 395-417.
2. Alizadeh, M., Mirzaei, R. ve Dittmann, A. (2021). Climate Change and Its Potential Impacts on Sustainable Tourism Development, Anatolia, 32 (3): 443-455.
3. Anđelković, G., Pavlović, S., Đurđić, S., Belij, M., ve Stojković, S. (2016). Tourism Climate Comfort Index (TCCI)- An Attempt to Evaluate the Climate Comfort for Tourism Purposes: The Example of Serbia, Global NEST Journal, 18 (3): 482-493.
4. Anna, B., Milica, P., Oleh, S., Błażejczyk, K. ve Olesya, S. (2021). Weather Suitability for Outdoor Tourism in Three European Regions in First Decades of the Twenty-First Century, International Journal of Biometeorology, 65, 1339-1356.
5. Bakhtiari, B., Bakhtiari A. ve Afzali Gorouh Z. (2018). Investigation of Climate Change Impacts on Tourism Climate Comfort in Iran, Global NEST Journal, 20 (2): 291-303.
6. Bilgin, B., Bayindir, E., Demiralay, Z., Turp, M.T., An, N. ve Kurnaz, M.L. (2023). Human Comfort Analysis for Turkey’s Coastal Tourism in a Changing Climate, Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 154, 945-958.
7. Bilgin, B., Acar, S., Demiralay, Z., An N., Turp M. T., ve Kurnaz M. L. (2024). A Synthetic Approach to the Holiday Climate Index for the Mediterranean Coast of Türkiye, International Journal of Biometeorology, 68, 1773–1787.
8. Binarti, F. Koerniawan, M.D., Triyadi, S., Utami, S.S. ve Matzarakis, A. (2020). A Review of Outdoor Thermal Comfort Indices and Neutral Ranges for Hot-humid Regions, Urban Climate, 31, 100531.

9. Caldeira, A.M., ve Kastenholz, E. (2018). It’s So Hot: Predicting Climate Change Effects on Urban Tourists’ Time-Space Experience, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 26 (9): 1516-1542.
10. Čegar N., Vukašinović S., Dobrić M., ve Durlević U. (2023). Assessment of Tourist Climate Comfort on the Example of Novi Sad, Glasnik Srpskog Geografskog Drustva, 103 (2): 107-128.
11. Cheng, Q-P., ve Zhong, F-L. (2019). Evaluation of Tourism Climate Comfort in The Grand Shangri-La Region, Journal of Mountain Science, 16 (6): 1452-1469.
12. Cianconi, P., Betrò, S., ve Janiri, L. (2020). The Impact of Climate Change on Mental Health: A Systematic Descriptive Review, Frontiers in Psychiatry, 11:74.
13. Çağlak, S., Toy, S. (2024). Evaluating the Spatial Distribution of Thermal Comfort Conditions in a High-Elevated Cold City Centre, Erzurum, Pure and Applied Geophysics. 181, 1363-1380.
14. Çevik, S. (2024). Climate Change and Energy Security: The Dilemma or Opportunity of the Century? Environmental Economics and Policy Studies, 26: 653–672.
15. Day, J., Chin, N., Sydnor, S., Widhalm, M., Shah, K.U. ve Dorworth, L. (2021). Implications of Climate Change for Tourism and Outdoor Recreation: An Indiana, USA, Case Study, Climatic Change, 169, 29.
16. de Freitas, C.R. (1990). Recreation Climate Assessment. International Journal of Climatology, 10: 89–103.
17. de Freitas, C.R. (2003). Tourism Climatology: Evaluating Environmental Information for Decision Making and Business Planning in the Recreation and Tourism Sector, International Journal of Biometeorology, 48: 45-54.
18. de Freitas, C.R., Scott, D. ve McBoyle, G. (2008). A Second-generation Climate Index for Tourism (CIT): Specification and Verification, International Journal of Biometeorology, 52: 399-407.
19. de Freitas, C.R. (2015). Weather and Place-based Human Behavior: Recreational Preferences and Sensitivity, International Journal of Biometeorology, 59: 55-63.
20. de Montigny, L., Ling, R. ve Zacharias, J. (2012). The Effects of Weather on Walking Rates in Nine Cities, Environment and Behavior, 44 (6): 821-840.
21. Demiroglu, O.C., Saygili-Araci, F.S., Pacal, A., Hall, C.M. ve Kurnaz, M.L. (2020). Future Holiday Climate Index (HCI) Performance of Urban and Beach Destinations in the Mediterranean, Atmosphere, 11 (9): 911.
22. Dubois, G., Ceron, J.P., Dubois, C., Frias, M.D. ve Herrera, S. (2016). Reliability and Usability of Tourism Climate Indices, Earth Perspectives, 3, 2.
23. Durlevič, U., Čegar, N., Dobrič, M., Vukašinovič, S., Lukič, T., Stevanovič, V., Radovanovič, D. ve Valjarevič, A. (2023). The Heritage Climate Index (HERCI): Development, Assessment and Application for Tourism Purposes in Geoheritage and Cultural Heritage Sites, Atmosphere, 14 (8): 1265.
24. Efe, B., Gözet, E., Özgür, E., Lupo, A.R. ve Deniz, A. (2022). Spatiotemporal Variation of Tourism Climate Index for Türkiye during 1981-2020, Climate, 10 (10): 151.
25. EUROCONTROL (2021). Annex 4 Climate Change Risks for European Aviation Study 2021, Impact of Climate Change on Tourism Demand Technical Report. https://www.eurocontrol.int/publication/eurocontrol-study-climate-change-risks-european-aviation, Erişim tarihi: 19.5.2024.
26. Falk, M. (2014). Impact of Weather Conditions on Tourism Demand in the Peak Summer Season over the Last 50 Years, Tourism Management Perspectives, 9: 24-35.
27. Falk, M. (2015). The Demand for Winter Sports: Empirical Evidence for the Largest French Ski-lift Operator, Tourism Economics, 21 (3): 561-580.
28. Gatti, E. ve Brownlee, M. (2024). Outdoor Recreationists’ Engagement with Weather: The Weather-outdoor Recreation Process Model, Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism, 45, 100707.
29. Godde, C.M., Mason-D’Croz, D., Mayberry, D.E., Thornton, P.K., ve Herrero, M. (2021). Impacts of Climate Change on the Livestock Food Supply Chain; A Review of the Evidence, Global Food Security, 28, 100488.
30. Gössling, S., Abegg, B. ve Steiger, R. (2016). It Was Raining All the Time!”: Ex Post Tourist Weather Perceptions, Atmosphere, 7 (1): 10.
31. Hall, C.M. ve Ram, Y. (2021). Weather and Climate in the Assessment of Tourism-related Walkability, International Journal of Biometeorology, 65: 729-739.
32. Hasanah, I.A.N., Maryetnowati, D., Edelweis, N.F., Indriyani, F. ve Nugrahayu, Q. (2020). The Climate Comfort Assessment for Tourism Purposes in Borobudur Temple Indonesia, Heliyon, 6 (12), e05828.
33. Hein, L., Metzger, M.J., ve Moreno, A. (2009). Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Tourism; A Case Study for Spain, Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability. 1 (2): 170-178.
34. Howarth E, Hoffman, M.S. (1984). A Multidimensional Approach to the Relationship between Mood and Weather, British Journal of Psychology, 75 (1): 15-23.
35. Höppe, P. (1999). The Physiological Equivalent Temperature-a Universal Index for the Biometeorological Assessment of the Thermal Environment, International Journal of Biometeorology, 43: 71-75.
36. Hsu, J.L. ve Sharma, P. (2023). Disaster and Risk Management in Outdoor Recreation and Tourism in the Context of Climate Change, International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management, 15 (5): 712-728.
37. Huang, K-T., Lin, T-P. ve Lien, H-C. (2015). Investigating Thermal Comfort and User Behaviors in Outdoor Spaces: A Seasonal and Spatial Perspective, Advances in Meteorology, 423508.
38. Ibarra, E.M. (2011). The Use of Webcam Images to Determine Tourist– Climate Aptitude: Favourable Weather Types for Sun and Beach Tourism on the Alicante Coast (Spain). International Journal of Biometeorology, 55: 373–385.
39. IPCC (2014). Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press.
40. Javadi S. ve Masum, A-A. (2021). The Impact of Climate Change on the Cost of Bank Loans, Journal of Corporate Finance, 69, 102019.
41. Jin, H., Liua, S. ve Kang, J. (2019). Thermal Comfort Range and Influence Factor of Urban Pedestrian Streets in Severe Cold Regions, Energy & Buildings, 198: 197-206.
42. Karimi, A. ve Mohammad, P. (2022). Effect of Outdoor Thermal Comfort Condition on Visit of Tourists in Historical Urban Plazas of Sevilla and Madrid, Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 29: 60641-60661.
43. Kim, Y. ve Brown, R. (2022). Effect of Meteorological Conditions on Leisure Walking: A Time Series Analysis and the Application of Outdoor Thermal Comfort Indexes, International Journal of Biometeorology, 66: 1109-1123.
44. Kumar, P. ve Sharma, A. (2022). Assessing Outdoor Thermal Comfort Conditions at an Urban Park During Summer in the Hot Semi-Arid Region of India, Materials Today: Proceedings, 61: 356-369.
45. KB (2019). Kuşadası Belediyesi. 2020-2024 Stratejik Plan. https://kusadasi.bel.tr/tr/stratejik-plan-p1017,Erişim tarihi: 26.10.2021.
46. KUTO (2024). Kuşadası Ticaret Odası. Kuşadası Ekonomisi. https://kuto.org.tr/tr/kusadasi/ekonomisi/, Erişim tarihi: 26.05.2024.
47. KTB (2024). Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı. Turizm İstatistikleri. https://yigm.ktb.gov.tr/TR-9851/turizm-istatistikleri.html, Erişim tarihi: 17.05.2024.
48. Lin, T.P. (2009). Thermal Perception, Adaptation and Attendance in a Public Square in Hot and Humid Regions, Building and Environment, 44 (10): 2017-2026.
49. Lin T.P. ve Matzarakis, A. (2008). Tourism Climate and Thermal Comfort in Sun Moon Lake, Taiwan, International Journal of Biometeorology, 52 (4): 281-290.
50. Lin, T.P., de Dear R., ve Hwang, R.L. (2011). Effect of Thermal Adaptation on Seasonal Outdoor Thermal Comfort, International Journal of Climatology, 31 (2): 302-312.
51. Matei, N.A., García-León, D., Dosio, A., Batista e Silva, F., Ribeiro Barranco, R., Císcar Martínez, J.C. (2023). Regional Impact of Climate Change on European Tourism Demand. Lüksemburg: Avrupa Birliği Yayın Ofisi.
52. Matzarakis, A. (2007). Assessment Method for Climate and Tourism based on Daily Data. İçinde: A.
53. Matzarakis, C. R. de Freitas, D. Scott (Editörler) Developments in Tourism Climatology (ss. 52-58). Commission Climate, Tourism and Recreation, International Society of Biometeorology.
54. Matzarakis, A., Mayer, H., ve Iziomon, M.G. (1999). Applications of a Universal Thermal Index: Physiological Equivalent Temperature, International Journal of Biometeorology, 43: 76-84.
55. Matzarakis, A., Rutz, F., ve Mayer, H. (2007). Modelling Radiation Fluxes in Simple and Complex Environments, Application of the RayMan Model, International Journal of Biometeorology, 51: 323-334.
56. Matzarakis, A., Möller, A., Kreilkamp, E., Carstensen, I., Bartels, C., Burandt, S., ve Endler, C. (2009). Anpassungsstrategien zum Klimawandel touristischer Pilotdestinationen in Küsten-und Mittelgebirgsregionen. İçinde M. Mahammadzadeh, H., Biebeler ve H. Bardt (Editörler). Klimaschutz und Anpassung an die Klimafolgen (ss. 253–262). Köln: Alman Ekonomi Enstitüsü.
57. Matzarakis, A., Hammerle, M., Endler, C, Muthers S. ve Koch, E. (2012). Assessment of Tourism and Recreation Destinations under Climate Change Conditions in Austria, Meteorologische Zeitschrift, 21(2): 157-165.
58. Mieczkowski, Z. (1985). The Tourism Climatic Index: A Method of Evaluating World Climates for Tourism, Canadian Geographies, 29: 220-233.
59. Mullenbach, L.E. ve Baker, B.L. (2020). Environmental Justice, Gentrification, and Leisure: A Systematic Review and Opportunities for the Future, Leisure Sciences, 42 (5-6): 430-447.
60. Nicholls, S. (2006). Climate Change, Tourism and Outdoor Recreation in Europe, Managing Leisure, 11 (3): 151-163.
61. Ogur, A.A. ve Baycan, T. (2022). Assessing Climate Change Impacts on Tourism Demand in Turkey, Environment, Development and Sustainability, 25: 2905-2935.
62. Pons-Pons, M., Johnson, P.A., Rosas-Casals, M., Sureda, B. ve Jover, E. (2012). Modeling Climate Change Effects on Winter Ski Tourism in Andorra, Climate Research, 54 (3): 197 -207.
63. Rigolona, A., Fernandez, M., Harris, B. ve Stewart, W. (2022). An Ecological Model of Environmental Justice for Recreation, Leisure Sciences, 44 (6): 655-676.
64. Rosselló-Nadal, J. (2014). How to Evaluate the Effects of Climate Change on Tourism, Tourism Management, 42: 334-340. Scott D, Gössling S, Hall CM (2012). International Tourism and Climate Change, Climate Change, 3 (3): 213-232.
65. Scott, D., Rutty, M., Amelung, B., ve Tang, M. (2016). An Inter-comparison of the Holiday Climate Index (HCI) and the Tourism Climate Index (TCI) in Europe, Atmosphere, 7 (6): 80.
66. Scott, D. ve Verkoeyen, S. (2017). Assessing the Climate Change Risk of a Coastal-island Destination. İçinde A. Jones ve M. Phillips, (Editörler). Global Climate Change and Coastal Tourism: Recognizing Problems, Managing Solutions and Future Expectations (ss. 62-73). Boston: CABI.
67. Scott, D., Hall, C.M., ve Gössling, S. (2019). Global Tourism Vulnerability to Climate Change, Annals of Tourism Research, 77: 49-61.
68. Serquet, G. ve Rebetez, M. (2011). Relationship between Tourism Demand in the Swiss Alps and Hot Summer Air Temperatures associated with Climate Change, Climate Change 108: 291-300. Tourism Panel on Climate Change (2023). Tourism Climate Change Stocktake 2023. https://tpcc.info/, Erişim Tarihi: 13.04.2024.
69. Toy, S. ve Yilmaz, S. (2016). Evaluation of Climatic Characteristics for Tourism and Recreation in Northeast Anatolia (TRA1 NUTS II) Region in the Example of Erzincan City Centre, Journal of Tourism and Gastronomy Studies, 4 (3): 53-65.
70. TÜİK (2024a). Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu. Genel Nüfus Sayımları. https://biruni.tuik.gov.tr/nufusmenuapp/menu.zul, Erişim tarihi: 15.05.2024.
71. TÜİK (2024b). Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu. Adrese Dayalı Nüfus Kayıt Sistemi Sonuçları. https://biruni.tuik.gov.tr/medas/?kn=95&locale=tr, Erişim tarihi: 15.05.2024.
72. Tütüncü, Ö. (2012). Rekreasyon ve Rekreasyon Terapisinin Yaşam Kalitesindeki Rolü, Anatolia: Turizm Araştırmaları Dergisi, 23 (2): 248-252.
73. UNWTO (2023). International Tourism Highlights 2023 Edition, The Impact of COVID-19 on Tourism (2020-2022). https://www.e-unwto.org/doi/epdf/10.18111/9789284424986, Erişim tarihi: 20.04.2024.
74. Worfolk, J.B. (1997). Keep Frail Elders Warm!: The Thermal Instabilities of the Old Have Not Received Sufficient Attention in Basic Educational Programs, Geriatric Nursing, 18 (1): 7-11.
75. Yañez, C.C., Hopkins, F.M., ve Porter, W.C. (2020). Projected Impacts of Climate Change on Tourism in the Coachella Valley, California, Climate Change, 162: 707-721.
76. Yu, D.D., Rutty, M., Scott, D. ve Li, S. (2021). A Comparison of the Holiday Climate Index: Beach and the Tourism Climate Index across Coastal Destinations in China, International Journal of Biometeorology, 65:741–748.
77. Yu, D.D., Matthews, L. Scott, D., Li, S., ve Guo, Z.Y. (2022). Climate Suitability for Tourism in China in an Era of Climate Change: A Multiscale Analysis Using Holiday Climate Index, Current Issues in Tourism, 25 (14): 2269–2284.