Comparison of Paleoclimatological Changes in Anatolia and Central Asia, since the Late Glacial Period: A New Perspective on Early Human Migrations

Öz

Lake sediments are one of the reliable natural archives used to track past environmental and climate changes all over the world. Environmental and climate changes during Late Glacial and the Holocene periods both in Anatolia and Central Asia can help us to understand both the reasons of the transition to the Neolithic lifestyle, which was a big step for humanity, and the traces of early civilizations established in Anatolia. For this purpose, in this study, we will compare the past climatic and environmental changes obtained from previously published paleolimnological studies both in Anatolia and Central Asia, which have numerous and large lakes and the oldest ancient settlements in the world, and discuss whether they could have caused possible human movements (migrations). These will be interpreted in the light of genetic relatedness relationships discovered up to now.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• paleoclimate
• paleolimnology
• human migrations
• genetic relatedness
• Anatolia
• Central Asia

Anadolu ve Orta Asya’da Geç Buzul Çağı’ndan Günümüze Paleoiklimsel Değişimlerin Karşılaştırılması: Erken İnsan Göçlerine Yeni Bir Bakış

Öz

Göl sedimanları tüm Dünya’da geçmiş iklim ve çevresel değişimleri takip etmek için kullanılan güvenilir doğal arşivlerden biridir. Anadolu ve Orta Asya’da Geç Buzul ve Holosen dönemi boyunca gerçekleşmiş çevresel ve iklim değişimleri hem insanlık için büyük bir adım olan Neolitik yaşam biçimine geçişin nedenlerini hem de Anadolu’da kurulan erken medeniyetlerin izlerini anlamamıza yardımcı olabilir. Bu amaçla, bu çalışmada çok sayıda ve geniş hacimde göllere ve Dünya’nın en eski antik yerleşimlerine sahip Anadolu ve Orta Asya’da daha önce yayınlanmış paleolimnolojik çalışmalardan elde edilen geçmiş iklimsel ve çevresel değişimleri karşılaştırıp olası insan hareketlerine (göçlere) neden olup olamayacağı tartışılacaktır. Bugüne kadar keşfedilmiş genetik yakınlık ilişkilerinin ışığında bunlar yorumlanacaktır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Paleoiklim
• Paleolimnoloji
• İnsan göçleri
• Genetik yakınlık
• Anadolu
• Orta Asya

Kaynakça

1. Ammerman, A. J., Cavalli-Sforza, L. L. 1984. The Neolithic Transition and the Genetics of Populations in Europe. Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton.
2. Baird, D. 2012. The late epipaleolithic, Neolithic, and chalcolithic of the anatolian plateau, 13 000–4000 BC. pp. 431–465. Ed: DT Potts. In: A companion to the archaeology of the ancient near east, Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford, UK.
3. Bar-Yosef, O., Cohen, A.B. 2001. From Africa to Eurasia - early dispersals. Quaternary International, 75, 19-28.
4. Benz, M., Bauer, J. 2015. On Scorpions, Birds and Snakes - Evidence for Shamanlsm in Northern Mesopotamia during the Early Holocene. Journal of Rituel Studies, 29(2): 1-23.
5. Berkman, C.C., Dinc, H., Sekeryapan, C., Togan, I. 2008. Alu Insertion Polymorphisms and An Assessment of the Genetic Contribution of Central Asia to Anatolia with Respect to the Balkans. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 136, 11-18.
6. Boomer, I., Aladin, N., Plotnikov, I., Whatleyc, R. 2000. The palaeolimnology of the Aral Sea: a review. Quaternary Science Reviews, 19, 1259-1278.
7. Bradley, R. S. 1985. Quaternary Paleoclimatology. Methods of Paleoclimatic Reconstruction, Allen & Unwin., USA, UK, Australia.
8. Chataigner, C., Poidevin, J.L., Arnaud, N.O. 1998. Turkish occurrences of obsidian and use by prehistoric peoples in the Near East from 14,000 to 6000 BP. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 85, 517–537.

9. Chiba, T., Endo,, K., Sugai, T., Haraguchi, T., Kondo, R., Kubota, J. 2016. Reconstruction of Lake Balkhash levels and precipitation/evaporation changes during the last 2000 years from fossil diatom assemblages. Quaternary International, 397, 330-341.
10. Chikhi, l., Nichols, R.A., Barbujani, G., Beaumont. M.A. 2002. Y genetic data support the Neolithic demic diffusion model. PNAS, 99 (17): 1108-11013.
11. Cinnioğlu, C., King, R., Kivisild, T., Kalfoglu, E., Atasoy, S., Cavalleri, G. L., Lillie, A. S., Roseman, C. C., Lin, A. A., Prince, K., Oefner, P. J., Shen, P., Semino, O., Cavalli-Sforza, L. L., Underhill, P. A. 2004. Excavating Y-chromosome haplotype strata in Anatolia. Human Genetics, 114: 127–148.
12. Çığ, M.İ. 2022a. Sümerlilerde Tufan Tufan’da Türkler. Kaynak Yayınları, İstanbul.
13. Çığ M.İ. 2022b. Gılgameş (Bilgameş) Tarihte İlk Kral Kahraman. Kaynak Yayınları, İstanbul.
14. Düring, B. 2011. The prehistory of Asia minor, from complex hunter-gatherers to early urban societies. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
15. Diamond, J. 1997. Tüfek, Mikrop ve Çelik. Tübitak Yayınları.
16. Feldman, M., Ferna´ ndez-Domı´nguez, E., Reynolds, L., Baird, D., Pearson, J., Hershkovitz, I., May, H., Goring-Morris, N., Benz, M., Gresky, J., et al. 2019. Late Pleistocene human genome suggests a local origin for the first farmers of central Anatolia. Nature Communications,10, 1218. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-09209-7.
17. Ge J, Zhang X, Wang S, Li L, He W, Jin Y, Zhang P, Xu B, Deng C, Olsen J W, Guo Z, Gao X. 2024. New dating indicates intermittent human occupation of the Nwya Devu Paleolithic site on the high-altitude central Tibetan Plateau during the past 45,000 years. Science China Earth Science, 67: 531–551.
18. Herzschuh, U. 2006. Palaeo-moisture evolution in monsoonal Central Asia during the last 50,000 years. Quaternary Science Reviews, 25:163-178.
19. Jacobson, M.J., Seguin, J., Finné, M., 2024. Holocene hydroclimate synthesis of the Aegean: Diverging patterns, dry periods and implications for climate-society interactions. The Holocene, 2024, 34(12):1807 - 1823.
20. Kars, M.E., et. al. 2021. The genetic structure of the Turkish population reveals high levels of variation and admixture. PNAS, 118(36):e2026076118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2026076118
21. Kashiwaya, K., Ochiai, S., Sakai, H., Kawai, T., 2001. Orbit-related long-term climate cycles revealed in a 12-Myr continental record from Lake Baikal. Nature, 410, 71–74.
22. Kılınç, G.M., Omrak, A., Özer, F., Günther, T., Büyükkarakaya, A.M., Bıçakçı, E., Baird, D., Dönertaş, H.M., Ghalichi, A., Yaka, R., et al. 2016. The Demographic Development of the First Farmers in Anatolia. Current Biology, 26, 2659-2666. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2016.07.057.
23. Kılınç, G.M., Koptekin, D., Atakuman, C¸ Sümer, A.P., Dönertaş, H.M., Yaka, R., Bilgin, C.C., Büyükkarakaya, A.M., Baird, D., Altınışık, E., et al. 2017. Archaeogenomic analysis of the first steps of Neolithization in Anatolia and the Aegean. Proceedings of Royal Society B, 284 (1867), 20172064. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2017.2064.
24. Lazaridis, I., Nadel, D., Rollefson, G., Merrett, D.C., Rohland, N., Mallick, S., Fernandes, D, et al. 2016. Genomic insights into the origin of farming in the ancient Near East. Nature, 536, 419-424. (doi:10.1038/nature19310)
25. Lister, G.S., Kelts, K., Zao, C.K., Yu, J., Niessen, F. 1991. Lake Qinghai, China: closed-basin lake levels and the oxygen isotope record for ostracoda since the latest Pleistocene. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 84, 141-162.
26. Liu, X., Colman, S.M., Brown, E.T., Henderson, A.C.G., Werne, J.P., Holmes, J.A. 2014. Abrupt deglaciation on the northeastern Tibetan Plateau: evidence from Lake Qinghai. Journal of Paleolimnology, 51: 223–240.
27. Mackay, A.W. 2007. The paleoclimatology of Lake Baikal: A diatom synthesis and prospectus. Earth-Science Reviews, 82, 181-215
28. Meyer M C, Aldenderfer M S, Wang Z, Hoffmann D L, Dahl J A, Degering D, Haas W R, Schlütz F. 2017. Permanent human occupation of the central Tibetan Plateau in the early Holocene. Science, 355: 64–67
29. Mischke, S., Rajabov, I., Mustaeva, N., Zhang, C., Herzschuh, U., Boomer, I., Brown, E.T., Andersen, N., Myrbo, A., Ito, E., Schudack, M.E. 2010. Modern hydrology and late Holocene history of Lake Karakul, eastern Pamirs (Tajikistan): a reconnaissance study. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 289, 10-24.
30. Miyake, Y. 2013. Hasankeyf Höyük/Batman. Dicle‟nin ilk köyü. Arkeo Atlas, 1: 40-47.
31. Özkaya, V., Coşkun, A. 2011. Körtik Tepe. New Excavations and New Research. pp. 89-127. Ed: M. Özdoğan, N. Başgelen, P. Kuniholm. In: The Neolithic in Turkey. vol 1., Archaeology and Art Publications, Istanbul.
32. Parlak, T. 2005. Tufandan Turan Denizi'ne, Turan Denizi’nden Günümüze Aral’ın Sırları. Türk Dünyası İnsan Haklan Demeği Yayınevi, Ankara.
33. Rhodes, T.E., Gasse, F., Ruifen, L., Fontes, J.C., Keqin, W., Bertrand, P., Gilbert, E., Melieres, F., Tucholka, P., Zhixiang, W., Zhi-Yuan, C. 1996. A Late Pleistocene-Holocene lacustrine record from Lake Manas, Zunggar (northern Xinjiang, western China). Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 120, 105-121.
34. Richards, M., Macaulay, V., Hickey, E., Vega, E., Sykes , B., Guida, V., et al. 2000. Tracing European founder lineages in the Near Eastern mtDNA pool. American Journal of Human Genetics, 67 (5): 1251-1276.
35. Ricketts, R.D., Johnson, T.C., Brown, E.T., Rasmussen, K.A., Romanovsky, V.V. 2001. The Holocene paleolimnology of Lake Issyk-Kul, Kyrgyzstan: trace element and stable isotope composition of ostracodes. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 176, 207-227.
36. Roberts, N., Reed, J. M., Leng, M. J., Kuzucuoğlu, C., Fontugne, M., Bertaux, J., Woldring, H., Bottema, S., Black, S., Hunt, E., Ka rabıyıkoğlu, M. 2001. The tempo of Holocene climate chan ge in the eastern Mediterranean region: New high-resolution crater-lake sediments data from central Turkey. The Holocene, 11, 721–736.
37. Schmidt, K. 2010. Göbekli Tepe – the Stone Age Sanctuaries. New results of ongoing excavations with a special focus on sculptures and high reliefs. Documenta Praehistoria, 37, 239–256.
38. Schwarz,, A., Turner, F., Lauterbach, S., Plessen, B., Krahn, K.J., Glodniok, S., Mischke, S., Stebich, M., Witt, R., Mingram, J., Schwalb, A. 2017. Mid- to late Holocene climate-driven regime shifts inferred from diatom, ostracod and stable isotope records from Lake Son Kol (Central Tian Shan, Kyrgyzstan). Quaternary Science Reviews, 177, 340-356.
39. Sekeryapan, C. 2005. An extended study on the alu insertion polymorphism in Anatolian human population. Master Thesis, Metu, Ankara.
40. Sekeryapan, C., Streurman, H-J., van der Plicht, J., Woldring, H., van der Veen, Y., Boomer, I. 2020. Late Glacial to mid Holocene lacustrine ostracods from southern Anatolia, Turkey: A palaeoenvironmental study with pollen and stable isotopes. Catena, Vol. 188, Article Number: 104437 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2019.104437
41. Şekeryapan, C. 2021. Paleolimnoloji: Biyolojik İndikatörler ve Anadolu’da Uygulamaları. Efil Yayınevi, Ankara.
42. Şekeryapan, C. 2022. Göbeklitepe’den Antroposen’e Yerkürede İnsan. Nobel Bilimsel Eserler, Nobel Akademik Yayıncılık, Ankara.
43. Skourtanioti, E., et al. 2020. Genomic history of neolithic to bronze age Anatolia, northern Levant, and southern Caucasus. Cell, 181, 1158–1175.
44. Smol, J. P. 2008. Pollution of Lakes and Rivers: a paleoenvironmental perspective (2nd ed). Blackwell Publishing.
45. Wang, Z., Zhang, F., Li, X., Cao, Y., Hu, J., Wanga, H., Lu, H., Li, T., Liu, W. 2020. Changes in the depth of Lake Qinghai since the last deglaciation and asynchrony between lake depth and precipitation over the northeastern Tibetan Plateau. Global and Planetary Change, 188, 103156.
46. Wang, C., Qiu, Y., Fan, F., Li, B., Niu, D., Shu, P. 2023. Rapid environmental changes in the Lake Qinghai basin during the late Holocene. Frontiers in Earth Science, doi: 10.3389/feart.2023.1125302.
47. Whittle, A. 1996. Europe in the Neolithic. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, U.K.
48. Wick, L., Lemcke, G., Sturm, M. 2003. Evidence of Lateglacial and Holocene climatic change and human impact in eastern Anatolia: high-resolution pollen, charcoal, isotopic and geoc hemical records from the laminated sediments of Lake Van, Turkey. The Holocene, 13/5, 665-675.
49. Yaka, R., Mapelli, I., Kaptan, D., Doğu, A., Chylenski, M., Erdal, Ö.D., Koptekin, D., et. al. 1021. Variable kinship patterns in Neolithic Anatolia revealed by ancient genomes. Current Biology, 31:2455–2468. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2021.03.050
50. Yu, G., Xue, B., Li, Y. 2013. Lake Level studies: Asia. pp. 506-523. Eds: AE Scott, CJ Mock. In: Encyclopedia of Quaternary Science, Second edition. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
51. Zhang X L, Ha B B, Wang S J, Chen Z J, Ge J Y, Long H, He W, Da W, Nian X M, Yi M J, Zhou X Y, Zhang P Q, Jin Y S, Bar-Yosef O, Olsen J W, Gao X. 2018. The earliest human occupation of the high-altitude Tibetan Plateau 40 thousand to 30 thousand years ago. Science, 362:1049–1051.
52. Zvelebil, M. 2000. DNA and the Population Prehistory of Europe. pp. 57–79. Eds: C. Renfrew, & K. Boyle. In: Archaeogenetics, McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, U.K.