Historical Perspective of Ecofeminism and Feminism: Women and Nature in the Context of Capitalism and Patriarchy

Öz

This study delves into the historical development and conceptual framework of feminism and ecofeminism within the context of critiques of neoliberalism and patriarchy. The research highlights the central importance ecofeminism places on women's experiences and perspectives in addressing environmental issues, particularly within the pursuit of sustainability in a consumer society. Beginning with an examination of the waves of feminism and an analysis of how ecofeminism emerged as a continuation of this movement, the study provides an in-depth evaluation of ecofeminism’s core concepts and their relationship with the dynamics of consumer society. In the conclusion, the study discusses how ecofeminism can transition from a theoretical framework to a practical tool for societal transformation, offering recommendations for future research. In this regard, the study demonstrates that ecofeminism represents an approach capable of contributing to both theoretical and practical goals of sustainability and environmental justice.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• feminism
• ecofeminism
• kapitalism
• patriarchy
• consumer society
• women
• environmental challenges
• sustainability.

Ekofeminizm ve Feminizmin Tarihsel Perspektifi: Kapitalizm ve Ataerki Bağlamında Kadın ve Doğa

Öz

Bu çalışma, feminizm ve ekofeminizmin tarihsel gelişimini ve temel kavramsal çerçevesini neoliberalizm ve ataerkil düzen eleştirileri ışığında derinlemesine incelemektedir. Çalışma, tüketim toplumu bağlamında sürdürülebilirlik arayışına odaklanan ekofeminizmin çevresel sorunların çözümünde kadınların deneyim ve perspektiflerine atfettiği merkezi önemi vurgulamaktadır. Feminizmin farklı dalgalarının incelenmesi ve ekofeminizmin bu hareketin devamı olarak nasıl şekillendiğinin analiz edilmesiyle başlayan çalışma, ekofeminizmin temel kavramlarını tüketim toplumunun dinamikleriyle ilişkilendirerek detaylı bir değerlendirme sunmaktadır. Sonuç bölümünde ise ekofeminizmin teorik çerçeveden toplumsal dönüşüm araçlarına nasıl evrilebileceği tartışılmakta ve gelecekteki araştırmalara yönelik öneriler sunulmaktadır. Bu bağlamda çalışma, ekofeminizmin hem teorik hem de pratik düzeyde sürdürülebilirlik ve çevresel adalet hedeflerine katkı sunabilecek bir yaklaşım olduğunu ortaya koymaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• feminizm
• ekofeminizm
• kapitalizm
• ataerki
• tüketim toplumu
• kadın
• çevresel sorunlar
• sürdürülebilirlik

Kaynakça

1. Adams, C. J. (2018). Provocations from the field: Female reproductive exploitation comes home. Animal Studies Journal, 7(2), 1-8. Erişim adresi: https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/212721482.pdf
2. Anderson, P. S. (2006). Feminism and philosophy. (Ed.) Gamble S., The Routledge Companion To Feminism And Postfeminism, NY: Routledge, 3-14.
3. Antil, J. H. (1984). Socially responsible consumers: Profile and implications for public policy. Journal of Macromarketing, 4(2), 18–39. https://doi.org/10.1177/027614678400400203
4. Anurogo, D. (2023). Ecofeminism 5.0. Multicultural Islamic Education Review, 1(1), 36–51. https://doi.org/10.23917/mier.v1i1.2828
5. Armentia, P. G. (2022). History of feminist thought: The birth and consolidation of the movement, Analele Universităţii din Craiova. Istorie, Anul XXVII, 2(42)/2022. https://doi.org/10.52846/AUCSI.2022.2.10
6. Arwiangsa, S., Muarifuddin, M. ve Azi, R. (2024). The role of women toward the environment in Ainbo Movie: An analysis of ecofeminism. ELITE: Journal of English Language and Literature, 9(1), 72-85. https://doi.org/10.33772/elite.v9i1.2671
7. Aslantürk, A. Y. (2018). Çevrenin siyasallaşmasında kadın ve doğanın dönüşümü: Ekofeminizm. Social Science Development Journal, 11(3), 312-324. https://doi.org/10.31567/ssd.64
8. Banford, A. ve Froude, C. K. (2015). Ecofeminism and natural disasters: Sri Lankan women post-tsunami. Journal of International Women's Studies, 16(2), 170-187. Erişim adresi: https://vc.bridgew.edu/jiws/vol16/iss2/11

9. Baudrillard, J. (1997). Tüketim toplumu, (çev. Hazal Deliceçaylı ve Ferda Keskin), İstanbul, Ayrıntı Yayınları.
10. Baudrillard, J. (2016). Tüketim toplumu söylenceleri yapıları (Çev. Deliceçaylı, H. ve Keskin, F.). İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları. 8. Basım (La societe de consommation).
11. Bauman, Z. (2000a). Postmodernlik ve hoşnutsuzlukları (Çev. Türkmen, İ.). İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları.
12. Bauman, Z. (2000b). Liquid modernity, UK: Polity Press.
13. Bauman, Z. (2007). Consuming life, Polity Press, Cambridge: UK.
14. Bayat, Ö. (2015). Ekoloji ve kadın. TMMOB Jeoloji Mühendisleri Odası. Erişim adresi: https://www.jmo.org.tr/resimler/ekler/01dc48239eed195_ek.pdf?dergi=HABER%20
15. Belk, R. W., Ger, G. ve Askegaard, S. (2003). The fire of desire: A multisited inquiry into consumer passion. Journal of consumer research, 30(3), 326-351. https://doi.org/10.1086/378613
16. Berman, T. (2001). The rape of mother nature? Women in the language of environmental discourse, The ecolinguistics reader: Language, Ecology and Environment, (Eds. Fill, A. ve Mühlhäusler, P.), N: Continuum, 258-269.
17. Biklen, S., Marshall, C. ve Pollard, D. (2008). Experiencing second-wave feminism in the USA. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 29(4), 451-469. https://doi.org/10.1080/01596300802410185
18. Bocock, R. (1997). Tüketim (çev. İrem Kutluk), Ankara, Dost Kitabevi Yayınları.
19. Brown, B. J., Hanson, M. E., Liverman, D. M. ve Merideth, R. W. (1987). Global sustainability: Toward definition. Environmental Management, 11, 713–719. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01867238
20. Bullis, C. ve Glaser, H. (1992). Bureaucratic discourse and the goddess: Towards an ecofeminist critique and rearticulation. Journal of Organizational Change Management. https://doi.org/10.1108/09534819210014878
21. Carlassare, E. (2000). Socialist and cultural ecofeminism: Allies in resistance. Ethics and the Environment, 5(1), 89-106. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1085-6633(99)00025-X
22. Demos, V. ve Segal, M. T. (2016). Introduction to gender and food: From production to consumption and after, Gender and Food: From Production to Consumption and After (Advances in Gender Research, Vol. 22), Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
23. Denys, P. (2011). Animals and women as meat, The Brock Review, 12(1), 44-50. https://doi.org/10.26522/br.v12i1.340
24. Dolphijn, R. ve van der Tuin, I. (2011). Pushing dualism to an extreme: On the philosophical impetus of a new materialism. Continental Philosophy Review, 44, 383–400. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11007-011-9197-2
25. Eaglaton, T. (1999). Postmodernizmin yanılsamaları (Çev. Küçük, M.). İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları. (The Illusions of Postmodernism).
26. Echegoyen-Sanz, Y., ve Martín-Ezpeleta, A. (2021). A holistic approach to education for sustainability: Ecofeminism as a tool to enhance sustainability attitudes in pre-service teachers. Journal of Teacher Education for Sustainability, 23(1), 5-21. https://doi.org/10.2478/jtes-2021-0002
27. Evans, E. (2015). Feminist inclusivity. The Politics of Third Wave Feminisms. Gender and Politics Series. Palgrave Macmillan, London, 87–110. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137295279_5
28. Fennell, D. A. (2022). An animal welfare literacy framework for tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 96, 103461. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2022.103461
29. Francione, G. L. (2008). Hayvan haklarına giriş çocuğunuz mu köpeğiniz mi? (Çev. Akman, R. ve Gen, E.). İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları. (Introduction to Animal Rights Your Child or the Dog?).
30. Gallo-Cruz, S. (2022). Awaiting spring and war: Insights from ecofeminism. Deportate, esuli, profughe, 49, 93-110. Erişim adresi: https://www.unive.it/pag/fileadmin/user_upload/dipartimenti/DSLCC/documenti/DEP/numeri/n49/10_Gallo-Cruz.pdf
31. Gamble, S. (2006a). Editor’s introduction: The controversies of feminism, (Ed.) Gamble, S., The Routledge Companion To Feminism And Postfeminism, NY: Routledge, vii-viii.
32. Gamble, S. (2006b). Postfeminism, (Ed.) Gamble S., The Routledge Companion To Feminism And Postfeminism, NY: Routledge, 36-45.
33. Giesler M. ve Veresiu E. (2014). Creating the responsible consumer: Moralistic governance regimes and consumer subjectivity, Journal of Consumer Research, 41(3), 840–857. https://doi.org/10.1086/677842
34. Gottdiener, M. (2005). Postmodern göstergeler (Çev. Cengiz, E., Gür, H. ve Nur, A.). Ankara: İmge Kitabevi. (Postmodern Semiotics).
35. Hall, E. J. ve Rodriguez, M. S. (2003). The myth of postfeminism. Gender & Society, 17(6), 878–902. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243203257639
36. Hallock, S. A. (1997).   Breaking through the silence: Towards an ecofeminist theory of international relations, University of Miami ProQuest Dissertations & Theses,   9805922. Erişim adresi: https://www.proquest.com/docview/304354578?pq-origsite=gscholar&fromopenview=true&sourcetype=Dissertations%20&%20Theses
37. Hekman, S. J. (2016). Toplumsal cinsiyet ve bilgi postmodern bir feminizmin öğeleri (Çev. Balkız, B. ve Tatlıcan, Ü.). İstanbul: Say Yayınları.
38. Heller, A. ve Feher, F. (1993). Postmodern politik durum (Çev. Argın, Ş. ve Akınhay, O.). “The Postmodern Political Condition”. Ankara: Öteki Yayınevi.
39. Hodgson-Wright, S. (2006). Early feminism, (Ed.) Gamble S., The Routledge Companion To Feminism And Postfeminism, NY: Routledge, 3-14.
40. Hollows, J. (2012). Spare rib, second-wave feminism and the politics of consumption. Feminist Media Studies, 13(2), 268-287. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2012.708508
41. Huber, J. (1976). Toward a sociotechnological theory of the women’s movement. Social Problems, 23(4), 371–388. https://doi.org/10.2307/799849
42. Jaggar, A. M. (1983). Feminist politics and human nature, NY: Rowman & Littlefield.
43. Maclaran, P. (2012). Marketing and feminism in historic perspective. Journal of Historical Research in Marketing. https://doi.org/10.1108/17557501211252998
44. Madhavi, B. ve Rao, K. N. (2023). Decolonizing nature: An in-depth analysis of ecofeminism. Journal of English Language and Literature, 10(2), 138-144. https://doi.org/10.54513/JOELL.2023.10214
45. Martin, E. (1998). Fluid Bodies, Managed Nature. In Remaking Reality: Nature at the Millenium. Eds. B. Willems-Braun and N. Castree. 64-83. London: Routledge.
46. Marx, K. (1859/2019). On the materialist conception of history, Ideals and Ideologies, 10. baskı, ed. Ball, T., Dagger, R. ve O’Neill, D.I., NY: Routledge.
47. McLeod-Kilmurray, H. (2012). Commoditizing nonhuman animals and their consumers: Industrial livestock production, animal welfare, and ecological justice. Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, 32(1), 71-85. https://doi.org/10.1177/0270467612444585
48. Merchant, C. (2005). Radical ecology: the search for a livable world, 2. baskı, NY: Routledge.
49. Mies, M. (1980). Capitalist development and subsistence reproduction; rural women in India. Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars, 12(1), 2-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/14672715.1980.10405557
50. Mies, M. (2007). Patriarchy and accumulation on a world scale revisited. (Keynote lecture at the Green Economics Institute, Reading, 29 October 2005). International Journal of Green Economics, 1(3-4), 268-275. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJGE.2007.013059
51. Mies, M. ve Shiva, V. (1993). People or population: towards a new ecology of reproduction. Ecofeminism. Bloomsbury Collections, 19, 277-296.
52. Mohai, P., Pellow, D. ve Roberts, J. T. (2009). Environmental justice. Annual review of environment and resources, 34(1), 405-430. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-082508-094348
53. Momsen, J. H. (2000). Gender differences in environmental concern and perception. Journal of geography, 99(2), 47-56. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221340008978956
54. Munro, E. (2013). Feminism: A fourth wave? Political Insight, 4(2), 22–25. https://doi.org/10.1111/2041-9066.12021
55. Ortner, S. B. (2022). Patriarchy. Feminist Anthropology, 3(2), 307-314. https://doi.org/10.1002/fea2.12081
56. Osman-Elasha, B. (2012). In the shadow of climate change, UN Chronicle, 46 (4), 54 - 55. https://doi.org/10.18356/5d941c92-en
57. Ottuh, P. O. O. (2021). Spiritual ecofeminism: Towards deemphasizing Christian patriarchy, Abraka Journal of Religion and Philosophy, 1(1), 51-72. Erişim adresi: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/361017322_SPIRITUAL_ECOFEMINISM_TOWARDS_DEEMPHASIZING_CHRISTIAN_PATRIARCHY
58. Öztürk, Y. M. (2020). Ekofeminizme genel bir bakış: Kadınlar, doğa ve hiyerarşiler. The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies, 81(Autumn), 705-714. http://doi.org/10.29228/JASSS.45458
59. Pew Research Center (2024). Rising numbers of Americans say Jews and Muslims face a lot of discrimination, Nisan, Erişim adresi: https://www.pewresearch.org/2024/04/02/rising-numbers-of-americans-say-jews-and-muslims-face-a-lot-of-discrimination/.
60. Pierce, T. (2002). Ecofeminism. Alemán, A. M. M. & Renn, K. A. (Eds.), Women in higher education: an encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO.
61. Plumwood, V. (1986). Ecofeminism: An overview and discussion of positions and arguments, Australasian Journal of Philosophy, 64(sup1), 120-138, https://doi.org/10.1080/00048402.1986.9755430
62. Plumwood, V. (1993). Feminism and the mastery of nature, NY: Routledge.
63. Radford-Ruether, R. (1995). Ecofeminism: Symbolic and social connections of the oppression of women and the domination of nature. Feminist Theology, 3(9), 35–50. https://doi.org/10.1177/096673509500000903
64. Russell, C. L. ve Bell, A. C. (1996). A politicized ethic of care: Environmental education from an ecofeminist perspective.
65. Saave, A. (2022). Ecofeminism now. Left strategies for the covid pandemic and its aftermath. transform! Yearbook 2022, Merlin Press, 335-350.
66. Salleh, A. (2003). Ecofeminism as sociology. Capitalism Nature Socialism, 14(1), 61-74. https://doi.org/10.1080/10455750308565514
67. Shiva, V. (2008). Globalization from below: Ecofeminist alternatives to corporate globalization. Globalization and environmental challenges: Reconceptualizing security in the 21st century, Springer, 15-20.
68. Shiva, V. (2010). Earth democracy: Beyond dead democracy and killing economies. Capitalism Nature Socialism, 21(1), 83-95. https://doi.org/10.1080/10455751003655922
69. Shiva, V. (2006). Earth Democracy: Justice, Sustainability and Peace. London: Zed Books Ltd.
70. Simons, M. A. (1979). Racism and feminism: A schism in the sisterhood. Feminist Studies, 5(2), 384–401. https://doi.org/10.2307/3177603
71. Snyder, R. C. (2008). What is third‐wave feminism? A New Directions Essay. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 34(1), 175–196. https://doi.org/10.1086/588436
72. Snyder-Hall, R. C. (2010). Third-wave feminism and the defense of “Choice.” Perspectives on Politics, 8(1), 255–261. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592709992842
73. Springer, K. (2002). Third wave black feminism? Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 27(4), 1059–1082. https://doi.org/10.1086/339636
74. Statista (2024). How much do you personally worry about race relations?, Erişim adresi: https://www.statista.com/statistics/1402769/share-of-americans-who-worry-about-race-relations-us/#:~:text=Share%20of%20Americans%20who%20worry%20about%20race%20relations%20U.S.%202015%2D2024&text=As%20of%202024%2C%2035%20percent,they%20worried%20a%20fair%20amount.
75. Sydee, J. ve Beder, S. (2001). Ecofeminism and globalism: A critical appraisal. Democracy & Nature, 7(2), 281-302. Erişim adresi: https://ro.uow.edu.au/artspapers/31
76. Taş, G. (2016). Feminizm üzerine genel bir değerlendirme: Kavramsal analizi, tarihsel süreçleri ve dönüşümleri. Akademik hassasiyetler, 3(5). Erişim adresi: https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/269956
77. Taylor, C. (2024). Introduction: Why gender and animals?, The Routledge Companion to Gender and Animals, (ed.) Taylor C., NY: Routledge, 1-45.
78. Thornham, S. (2006). Second wave feminism, (Ed.) Gamble, S. The Routledge Companion To Feminism And Postfeminism, NY: Routledge, 25-35.
79. Tilly, L. A. (1994). Women, women’s history, and the Industrial Revolution. Social Research, 61(1), 115–137. Erişim adresi: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40971024
80. Topgül, S. (2012). Kadın ve doğa ilişkisi: Ekofeminizm. Sosyoloji Dergisi, (27), 71-83. Erişim adresi: https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/593794
81. United Nations Brundtland Commission, (1987). Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future. Erişim adresi: https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/5987our-common-future.pdf
82. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (2016). The Paris Agreement. Erişim adresi: https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/parisagreement_publication.pdf.
83. Vareba, D. D. ve Berebon, C. B. (2022). Ecofeminism reconceives feminism in potential ecological feminism. AQUINO Journal of Philosophy, 2(2). Erişim adresi: https://www.acjol.org/index.php/aquino/article/view/3191/3145
84. Wani, I. U., Khanday, I. N. ve Haseen, S. (2023). Ecofeminism or techno-centrism? Analysing the gender-environment concoction in the Anthropocene: a study of OECD countries. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 30(54), 115021-115036. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-30598-2
85. Warren, K. J. (1998). Introduction to ecofeminism. In environmental philosophy: From animal rights to radical ecology; Zimmerman, M.E., Callicott, J.B., Clark, J., Warren, K.J., Klaver, I.J., Eds.; Pearson Prentice Hall: Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA, 1998.
86. Warren, K. J., & Cheney, J. (1991). Ecological feminism and ecosystem ecology. Hypatia, 6(1), 179-197. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1527-2001.1991.tb00216.x
87. Weisel-Barth, J. (2019). Feminine issues and the relational turn:“The Girls Deserve More Respect”. Psychoanalytic Inquiry, 39(2), 156-162. https://doi.org/10.1080/07351690.2018.1561113
88. World Economic Forum (2024). Global Gender Gap Report 2024. Erişim adresi: https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2024.pdf.
89. Yuval-Davis, N. (2006). Intersectionality and feminist politics. European Journal of Women’s Studies, 13(3),193–209. https://doi.org/10.1177/1350506806065752