Toplumsal Güvenlik: İsrail’de Ultra-Ortodoks (Haredi) Siyaseti Analiz Etmek İçin Yeni Bir Kavramsal Çerçeve

Abstract

İsrail’deki Haredi (ultra-Ortodoks) siyasi partiler, Yahadut HaTora ve Şas, iç siyasi gündemi sık sık etkilemektedir. Her ne kadar bu partilerin oynadığı roller üzerinde gelişmiş bir literatür oluşmuşsa da henüz güvenlik boyutuna işaret edilmemiştir. Bu çalışma, İsrail’deki Haredi (ultra-Ortodoks) siyaseti, Haredi eğitim özerkliği, dini okul (Yeşiva) öğrencilerinin askerlik hizmetinden muafiyetleri, Yahudiliğe geçiş süreci (giyur) ve ulusal ölçekte Şabat düzenlemeleri olmak üzere dört konuda güvenlik diline sürekli bağlılıklarının siyasi yansımalarını sorgulayarak kimlik-güvenlik ekseninde analiz etmektedir. Makale, Haredi partilerin dahil oldukları koalisyon belgeleri, 2013 ve 2015 seçim afişleri ve bu başlıklarda ortaya çıkan krizlere verilen bireysel ve kurumsal Haredi tepkileri analiz ederek Haredi siyasetinin çeşitli düzeylerde kimlik-güvenlik endişelerinin ifadesi ile organize edildiğini iddia etmektedir.

Keywords

• Ultra-Ortodoks
• Şas
• Yahadut HaTora
• Toplumsal güvenlik
• Kimlik

Societal Security: A New Conceptual Framework to Analyse Ultra-Orthodox (Haredi) Politics in Israel

Abstract

Haredi (ultra-orthodox) political parties in Israel, namely Yahadut HaTora and Shas, have been constantly affecting the domestic political agenda. Despite already flourished literature that covers the various roles these parties play; security dimension is yet to be addressed so far. This paper aims to analyse the Haredi politics in Israel in the identity-security nexus by questioning the political reflections of the Haredi parties’ persistent attachments to the security language in four core topics which are the Haredi educational autonomy, the exemption of religious school (yeshiva) students from the army service, the conversion to Judaism process (giyur), and the nationwide Shabbat regulations. By analysing the coalition documents that Haredi parties took part in, campaign posters of the 2013 and the 2015 elections, individual and institutional Haredi responses to certain crises regarding these topics, this paper claims that Haredi politics is organized by the articulation of identity-security concerns at varied levels.

Keywords

• Ultra-Orthodox
• Shas
• Yahadut HaTora
• Societal security
• Identity

References

1. Adamker, Yaki (2015), "The Achievements of Yahadut HaTora: The Draft Law Will Be Changed, The Minister Will Set the Targets", Walla, 30 April 2015. https://news.walla.co.il/item/2850161?utm_source=twitter&utm_medium=sharebutton&utm_term=social&utm_content=twitter&utm_campaign=socialbutton (30.04.2018) (in Hebrew).
2. Arieli Horowitz, Dana (2001), "Referenda in a Post‐consociational Democracy: The Case of Israel", Israel Affairs, 8 (1–2): 146–60.
3. Balzacq, T. (2005), "The Three Faces of Securitization: Political Agency, Audience and Context", European Journal of International Relations, 11 (2): 171–201.
4. Barak-Erez, Daphne (2009), "Law and Religion under the Status Quo Model: Between Past Compromises and Constant Change", Cardozo Law Review, 30: 2495–2507.
5. Basics of Government Policies (2013), https://m.knesset.gov.il/mk/government/documents/coalition2013_3.pdf, (28.12.2021), (in Hebrew)
6. Belder, Ferit (2022), "Making Sense of Risky Haredi Behaviors in Israel During the Covid-19 Pandemic", Uluslararası İlişkiler / International Relations, 19 (73): 29–44.
7. Ben-Porat, Guy (2008), "Israeli Society: Diversity, Tensions, and Governance", Ben-Porat, Guy, Yagil Levy, Shlomo Mizrahi, Arye Naor, and Erez Tzfadia (Ed.),Israel Since 1980 , (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press): 9–41.
8. Ben-Porat, Guy, and Yariv Feniger (2012), "It Takes Two for a Culture War", Social Science Quarterly, 93 (3): 838–57.

9. Bick, Etta (2007), "Rabbis and Rulings: Insubordination in the Military and Israeli Democracy", Journal of Church and State 49 (2): 305–27.
10. Bilgic, Ali (2013), "Towards a New Societal Security Dilemma: Comprehensive Analysis of Actor Responsibility in Intersocietal Conflicts", Review of International Studies, 39 (1): 185–208.
11. Brown, Benjamin (2003), "Orthodox Judaism", Neusner, Jacob and Alan Avery-Peck (Ed.), The Blackwell Companion to Judaism (Malden: Blackwell Publishing Ltd): 311–33.
12. Buzan, Barry (1993), "Introduction: The Changing Security Agenda in Europe", Waever, Ole, Barry Buzan, Morten Kelstrup, and Pierre Lemaitre (Ed.), Identity, Migration and the New Security Agenda in Europe (New York: Palgrave Macmillan): 1-14.
13. Buzan, Barry (1983), People, States, and Fear: The National Security Problem in International Relations (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press).
14. Buzan, Barry, and Ole Wæver (2009), "Macrosecuritisation and Security Constellations: Reconsidering Scale in Securitisation Theory", Review of International Studies, 35 (2): 253–76.
15. Buzan, Barry, Ole Waever, and Jaap De Wilde (1997), Security: A New Framework for Analysis (Boulder, Colo: Lynne Rienner Pub).
16. Ceylan, Tuğçe Ersoy (2020), İsrailde Çatışan Kimlikler - Filistinliler ve Yahudiler (Istanbul: Küre Yayınları).
17. Cohen, Asher (2004), "Changes in the Orthodox Camp and Their Influence on the Deepening Religious-Secular Schism at the Outset of the Twenty-First Century", Dowty, Alan (Ed.), Critical Issues in Israeli Society (Westport: Praeger): 71–94.
18. Cohen, Asher, and Jonathan Rynhold (2005), "Social Covenants: The Solution to the Crisis of Religion and State in Israel", Journal of Church and State 47: 725–45.
19. Cohen, Asher, and Bernard Susser (2009), "Jews and Others: Non-Jewish Jews in Israel", Israel Affairs, 15 (1): 52–65.
20. Deri, Arye (2018), A Portrait of a Movement,. https://iyun.org.il/article/דיוקנה-של-תנועה/ (13.03.2023) (in Hebrew).
21. Don-Yehiya, Eliezer (2005), "Public Policy and Management of Major Political Cleavages", Korn, Dani (Ed.), Public Policy in Israel: Perspectives and Practices (Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books): 9-30.
22. Don-Yehiya, Eliezer (1998), "Religion, Ethnicity and Electoral Reform: The Religious Parties and the 1996 Elections", Elazar, Daniel J. and Shmuel Sandler (Ed.), Israel at the Polls, 1996 (London, Portland: Routledge): 73-102.
23. Don-Yehiya, Eliʻezer (1999), Religion and Political Accomodation in Israel (Jerusalem: Floersheimer Institute for Policy Studies Limited).
24. Edelman, Ofra (2015), "United Torah Judaism’s Election Campaign Enters the 21st Century", Haaretz, 2 March 2015. https://www.haaretz.com/.premium-united-torah-judaism-enters-21st-century-1.5330656 (27.12.2021).
25. Eisenstadt, S.N (2008), "Collective Identities, Public Spheres, Civil Society and Citizenship in the Contemporary Era – with Some Observations on the Israeli Scene", Citizenship Studies, 12 (3): 203–13.
26. Ettinger, Yair (2012), "Bagatz Rejected the Tal Law: 'The Basic Values of the State of Israel Cannot Bear It'". Haaretz, 21 February 2012. https://www.haaretz.co.il/news/education/1.1646921 (01.072018) (in Hebrew).
27. Ettinger, Yair (2014), "What Is Behind the Giyur Law", 2 November 2014. https://www.haaretz.co.il/news/whatis/.premium-1.2474684 (22.02.2018) (in Hebrew).
28. Fisher, Netanel (2016), "The Fundamentalist Dilemma: Lessons from the Israeli Haredi Case", International Journal of Middle East Studies, 48, (3): 531–49.
29. Fox, Jonathan, and Jonathan Rynhold (2008), "A Jewish and Democratic State? Comparing Government Involvement in Religion in Israel with Other Democracies", Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions, 9 (4): 507–31.
30. Friedman, Menachem (1991), Haredi Society: Sources, Trends and Processes (Jerusalem: The Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies)(in Hebrew).
31. Friedman, Menachem (1995), "The Structural Foundation for Religio-Political Accomodation in Israel: Fallacy and Reality", Troen, S. Ilan and Noah Lucas (Ed.), Israel: The First Decade of Independence(Albany: State University of New York Press): 51-82.
32. Goldberg, David J. (1997), To the Promised Land (London; New York: Penguin Books).
33. Halbertal, Dov. (2016), "Religion and State, One and the Same", Ben-Rafael, Eliezer, Julius H. Schoeps, Yitzhak Sternberg, Olaf Glöckner, and Anne Weberling (Ed.), Handbook of Israel: Major Debates (Berlin: De Gruyter Oldenbourg).
34. Heilman, Samuel C. (1992), Defenders of the Faith: Inside Ultra-Orthodox Jewry (California: University of California Press).
35. Heilman, Samuel C., and Menachem Friedman (1992), "Religious Fundamentalism and Religious Jews: The Case of Haredim", Marty, Martin E. and R. Scott Appleby (Ed.),Fundamentalisms Observed (Chicago: University of Chicago Press).
36. Heilman, Samuel C., and Menachem Friedman (1991), The Haredim in Israel: Who Are They and What Do They Want? (New York: Institute on American Jewish-Israeli Relations, The American Jewish Committee).
37. Helman, Eli (2012), "Why Shas Chose a Negative Campaign?" Kikar HaShabbat, 10 December 2012. https://kikarhashabat.co.il/למה-שס-הלכה-על-קמפיין-שלילי.html (28.12.21) (in Hebrew).
38. Horowitz, Dan, and Moshe Lissak (1989), Trouble in Utopia: The Overburdened Polity of Israel (Albany: State University of New York Press).
39. "Hours of Work and Rest Law 5711-1951" (1951). https://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/ELECTRONIC/36146/81476/F1584867301/ISR36146.pdf (25.12.21).
40. Ivekovic, Ivan (2002), "Nationalism and the Political Use and Abuse of Religion: The Politicization of Orthodoxy, Catholicism and Islam in Yugoslav Successor States", Social Compass, 49 (4): 523–36.
41. JDN (2013), "Bereshit Advertising Agency Reveals: Line 7 Leads to Bakum", 11 January 2013. https://www.jdn.co.il/economy/advertising/173792/ (01.08.2018) (in Hebrew).
42. Jerusalem Post (2014), "Chief Rabbis Reiterate Opposition to Conversion Law", 3 November 2014. https://www.jpost.com/Israel-News/Chief-Rabbis-reiterate-opposition-to-conversion-law-380674 (30.03.2018).
43. Job, Brian (1992), "The Insecurity Dilemma: National Security of Third World States", The Insecurity Dilemma: National Security of Third World States (Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers): 11-35.
44. Jung, Leo (1928), The Jewish Library (New York: Bloch Publishing Co.).
45. Kamil, Omar (2000), "Rabbi Ovadia Yosef and His Culture War in Israel", Middle East Review of International Affairs, 4 (4).
46. Kardaş, Tuncay, and Ali Balci (2016), "Inter-Societal Security Trilemma in Turkey: Understanding the Failure of the 2009 Kurdish Opening", Turkish Studies, 17 (1): 155–80.
47. Katz, Gideon (2008), "The Israeli Kulturkampf", Israel Affairs, 14 (2)(): 237–54.
48. Kaufman, Stuart J. (1996), "An 'International' Theory of Inter-Ethnic War", Review of International Studies, 22 (2): 149–71.
49. Kimmerling, Baruch (1998), "Between Hegemony and Dormant Kulturkampf in Israel", Israel Affairs, 4 (3–4)): 49–72.
50. Kingsbury, Ian (2018), "Haredi Education in Israel: Fiscal Solutions and Practical Challenges: British Journal of Religious Education", British Journal of Religious Education, 42 (2): 193–201.
51. Kliger, Haim (2015), "Campaign Analysts: Why Yahadut HaTora Broadcasts Lack of Optimism". Kikar HaShabbat, 7 February 2015. https://www.kikar.co.il/163289.html (29.12.2021) (in Hebrew).
52. Knesset. Compulsory Education Law (1949), https://knesset.gov.il/review/data/eng/law/kns1_education_eng.pdf (22.12.2021).
53. Knesset News (2018), "Approved in Preliminary Reading: The Arrangement of the Status of Tora Learners", 13 March 2018. https://main.knesset.gov.il:443/News/PressReleases/Pages/press13.03.18y.aspx (25.03.2018) (in Hebrew).
54. Knesset News (2013), "Burden Equality Bills Were Approved in the First Reading; Minister Bennett: If There is a Reason for This Government, It is This Evenening", Knesset News, 23 July 2013. https://main.knesset.gov.il:443/News/PressReleases/Pages/press230713.aspx (Accessed 29.04.2018) (in Hebrew).
55. Knesset News (2014), "Law Committee Approved the Giyur Law in the Second and Third Reading", 19 March 2014. https://main.knesset.gov.il:443/News/PressReleases/Pages/press190314-sss.aspx?category_id= (19.02.2018) (in Hebrew).
56. Knesset News (2017), "Supermarket Law Was Approved in the First Reading", 12 December 2017. https://main.knesset.gov.il:443/News/PressReleases/Pages/press12.12.17a.aspx (22.12.2017) (in Hebrew).
57. Knesset News (2018), "Supermarket Law Was Finally Approved with the Majority of 58 MKs Against 57", 9 January 2018. https://main.knesset.gov.il:443/News/PressReleases/Pages/press09.01.18.aspx (15.01.2018) (in Hebrew).
58. Knesset Research and Information Centre (2018), "The Arrangement of the Military Service Deferrals for Yeshiva Stıudents: Historical Background", Jerusalem: Knesset Research and Information Centre, 1 July 2018. https://fs.knesset.gov.il/globaldocs/MMM/f6627626-ef7c-e811-80e2-00155d0a9876/2_f6627626-ef7c-e811-80e2-00155d0a9876_11_10610.pdf (29.12.2021) (in Hebrew).
59. Lapid, Yosef, and Friedrich Kratochwill (1996), "Revisiting the National: Toward an Identity Agenda in Neorealism" Lapid, Yosef and Friedrich Kratochwill (Ed.), The Return of Culture and Identity in IR Theory (London: Lynne Rienner Pub): 105-28.
60. Laustsen, Carsten Bagge, and Ole Wæver (2000), "In Defence of Religion: Sacred Referent Objects for Securitization", Millennium - Journal of International Studies, 29 (3): 705–39.
61. Leon, Nissim (2015), "An Uneasy Stability: The Haredi Parties’ Emergency Campaign for the 2013 Elections", Israel Affairs, 21 (2): 230–44.
62. Leon, Nissim (2014), "Ethno-Religious Fundamentalism and Theo-Ethnocratic Politics in Israel", Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism, 14 (1): 20–35.
63. Leon, Nissim (2016), "The Haredi-Secular Debate and the Shas Approach", Ben-Rafael, Eliezer, Julius H. Schoeps, Yitzhak Sternberg, Olaf Glöckner, and Anne Weberling (Ed.), Handbook of Israel: Major Debates (Berlin: De Gruyter Oldenbourg): 131-45.
64. Leon, Nissim (2016), "The Ethnic Structuring of ‘Sephardim’ in Haredi Society in Israel", Jewish Social Studies, 22 (1): 130–160.
65. Levush, Ruth (2012), "Israel: Supreme Court Decision Invalidating the Law on Haredi Military Draft Postponement", The Law Library of Congress, Global Legal Research Directorate, https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/llglrd/2018299335/2018299335.pdf (06.06.2018).
66. Liebman, C. S. (1995), "Paradigms sometimes fit: The Haredi response to the Yom Kippur war", Israel Affairs, 1 (3): 171–184.
67. Lintl, Peter (2020), "The Haredim as a Challenge for the Jewish State The Culture War over Israel’s Identity", Berlin: SWP Research Paper. https://www.swp-berlin.org/publications/products/research_papers/2020RP14_HaredimIsrael.pdf (15.04.2022).
68. Maariv (2018), "Lapid Against the Supermarket Law: ’Religious Coercion, If Necessary We’ll Go Out to the Streets", Maariv, 1 January 2018, (in Hebrew).
69. Mathie, Nicola (2016), "'Jewish Sectarianism' and the State of Israel", Global Discourse, 6 (4): 601–29.
70. Melander, Erik (1999), Anarchy Within: The Security Dilemma Between Ethnic Groups in Emerging Anarchy (Uppsala: Uppsala Universitet).
71. Møller, Bjørn (2003), "National, Societal and Human Security: Discussion — Case Study of the Israel-Palestine Conflict", Brauch, Hans Günter, Peter H. Liotta, Antonio Marquina, Paul F. Rogers, and Mohammad El-Sayed Selim (Ed.), Security and Environment in the Mediterranean: Conceptualising Security and Environmental Conflicts (Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer): 277-88.
72. "Municipalities Ordinance", https://www.nevo.co.il/law_html/Law01/P182_001.htm#Seif152 (29.12.2021) (in Hebrew).
73. National Library Archives, 2013 Elections, (V3552 28) (01.07.2018)
74. Novik, Akiva (2013), "Against Geometry and the Line to Bakum: Yahadut HaTora Campaign", Yedioth Ahronot, 16 January 2013. https://www.ynet.co.il/articles/0,7340,L-4333083,00.html (29.12.2021) (in Hebrew).
75. Olesker, Ronnie (2011), "Israel’s Societal Security Dilemma and the Israeli-Palestinian Peace Process", Nationalism and Ethnic Politics, 17(4): 382–401.
76. Posen, Barry R. (1993), "The Security Dilemma and Ethnic Conflict", Survival, 35 ((1): 27–47.
77. Ravitzky, Aviezer (2000), Religious and Secular Jews in Israel: A Kulturkampf? (Jerusalem: IDI Position Paper).
78. Roe, Paul (2004), Ethnic Violence and the Societal Security Dilemma (London ; New York: Routledge).
79. Rubinstein, Amnon (1984), The Zionist Dream Revisited: From Herzl to Gush Emunim and Back (New York: Schocken Books).
80. Saleh, Alam (2010), "Broadening the Concept of Security: Identity and Societal Security", Geopolitics Quarterly, 6 (4): 228–41.
81. Samet, Moshe (1988), "The Beginnings of Orthodoxy", Modern Judaism, 8 (3): 249–69.
82. Schiff, Gary S. (1977), Tradition and Politics: The Religious Parties of Israel (Detroit: Wayne State University Press).
83. Shapira, Anita (2015), Israel: A History (Waltham, Massachusetts: Brandeis University Press).
84. Shkedi, Haim (2013). ‘Shas’ Campaign of Fictitious Giyur Stirs Up a Storm’. Kikar HaShabbat, 9 January 2013. https://kikarhashabat.co.il/סערה-סביב-קמפיין-שס-נגד-הגיור.html (29.12.2021) (in Hebrew).
85. Stadler, Nurit, Edna Lomsky-Feder, and Eyal Ben-Ari (2014), "Fundamentalist Citizenships The Haredi Challenge", Ben-Porat, Guy and Bryan S. Turner (Ed.), The Contradictions of Israeli Citizenship: Land, Religion and State (London: Routledge): 135-57.
86. Tang, Shiping (2011), "The Security Dilemma and Ethnic Conflict: Toward a Dynamic and Integrative Theory of Ethnic Conflict", Review of International Studies, 37 (2): 511–36.
87. The Supreme Court Sitting as the High Court of Justice (1998), "HC 3267/97 Rubinstein vs. Minister of Defence", 9 December 1998. http://versa.cardozo.yu.edu/sites/default/files/upload/opinions/Rubinstein%20v.%20Minister%20of%20Defense_0.pdf (09.07.2019).
88. Waever, Ole (1993), "Societal Security, The Concept", Waever, Ole, Barry Buzan, Morten Kelstrup, and Pierre Lemaitre (Ed.), Identity, Migration and the New Security Agenda in Europe (New York: Palgrave Macmillan): 17-40.
89. Waever, Ole (2008), "The Changing Agenda of Societal Security" Brauch, Hans Günter, Úrsula Oswald Spring, Habil Czeslaw Mesjasz, John Grin, Pál Dunay, Navnita Chadha Behera, Béchir Chourou, Patricia Kameri-Mbote, and P. H. Liotta (Ed.), Globalization and Environmental Challenges: Reconceptualizing Security in the 21st Century (Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer- Verlag): 581-93.
90. Zameret, Zvi (1999), "The Decision to Sanction the 'Fourth Stream': The Agudat Israel Educational Network", Rich, Israel and Michael Rosenak (Ed.), Abiding Challenges: Research Perspectives on Jewish Education : Studies in Memory of Mordechai Bar-Lev (London: Freund Publishing House Ltd.): 121-44.