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Ölçek Geliştirme Çalışması: Savaş Travması Maruziyet Ölçeği

Year 2023, Volume: 10 Issue: 2, 265 - 293, 31.05.2023
https://doi.org/10.31682/ayna.1202068

Abstract

Geniş çapta çalışılmasına rağmen, araştırmalar yalnızca savaşın sonuçlarıyla ilgilenir. Savaşın etkilerini değerlendirirken mevcut ölçekler savaşı genel bir travma olarak ele alır, sadece yaşanıp yaşanmadığını sorar ve doğrudan sonuçlarına atlar. Yani, savaştan sağ kurtulanların hangi deneyimleri yaşadıklarını değerlendirmede bir boşluk vardır. Bu nedenle, çalışmanın amacı, savaş deneyimlerinin nitel olarak anlaşılmasını sağlayacak ve etkilerini nicel olarak değerlendirebilecek bir ölçek geliştirmektir. Bu çalışma bir tez çalışmasının parçası olarak (Yazar), Kuzey Kıbrıs'taki Kıbrıslı Türk kadınlarla (N = 168) Kıbrıs Savaşı dikkate alınarak yapılmıştır. Çalışmada üç aşama izlenmiştir: görüşme, pilot çalışma ve psikometrik inceleme. Psikometrik incelemede, faktör analizi “Olumsuz Duygular”, “Şiddete Maruz Kalma” ve “Kayıp” olmak üzere üç faktörlü çözüm ortaya koymuştur. Ölçeğin genel güvenilirliği iyidir (r = .91). Hem Olayların Etkisi Ölçeği (IES-R) hem de Savaş Travmasına Maruz Kalma Ölçeği (WTES) %75.68 varyans ile aynı faktör altında toplanmıştır. Ölçek, diğer ilgili yapılarla önemli korelasyonlar göstermiştir. ANOVA, ölçeğin IES-R ile paralel olduğunu desteklemiştir. Ki-kare uyum testi (χ²) iyi bir uyum göstermiştir. Sonuç olarak WTES’in, sınırlılıklarına rağmen, savaşa bağlı maruz kalmayı ölçmek için nispeten geçerli ve güvenilir bir ölçek olduğu bulunmuştur. Savaş Travmasına Maruz Kalma Ölçeği (WTES), (1) doğrudan savaş travmasına odaklandığı, (2) savaş travmasının tanımlanabilmesi için 23 gerçek savaş deneyimini listelediği, (3) hayatta kalanın maruz kaldığı savaş deneyimi sorduğu ve (4) bu maruz kalmanın etkisini ölçtüğü için diğer ölçeklerden ayrılır. Dolayısıyla, savaş travmasını değerlendirmeye yönelik mevcut ölçeklerden farklı olarak, WTES, savaştan sağ kurtulanların savaş deneyimlerini anlamayı ve bu savaş deneyimlerinin psikolojik etkisini değerlendirmeyi mümkün kılan bir ölçektir.

Thanks

Çalışmaya katılan tüm katılımcılara ve ölçeklerin yeni katılımcılara ulaşmasını sağlayan herkese teşekkürler.

References

  • Agbuga, B., Aslan, Ş., Erol, A. E., Dündar, U., & Kepenek, Y. (2011). Relationship between job satisfaction and life satisfaction of sports enterpreneurs. Ovidius University Annals, Series Physical Education and Sport/ Science, Movement and Health, 11(2), 266-272.
  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5 (5th ed).
  • Berthold, S. M. (2000). War traumas and community violence: psychological, behavioral, and academic outcomes among Khmer refugee adolescents. Journal of Multicultural Social Work, 8(1-2), 15–46. https://doi.org/10.1300/J285v08n01_02
  • Besser, A., & Neria, Y. (2009). PTSD symptoms, satisfaction with life, and prejudicial attitudes toward the adversary among Israeli civilians exposed to ongoing missile attacks. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 22(4), 268-275.
  • Bramsen, I. & van der Ploeg, H.M. (1999), Fifty years later: the long-term psychological adjustment of ageing World War II survivors. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 100(5) 350-358. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.1999.tb10878.x
  • Clarkin, P. F. (2019). The embodiment of war: Growth, development, and armed conflict. Annual Review of Anthropology, 48, 423-442. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-anthro-102218-011208
  • Cook, D. A., & Beckman, T. J. (2006). Current concepts in validity and reliability for psychometric instruments: Theory and application. American Journal of Medicine, 119, 166e7–166e16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2005.10.036
  • Cosman, I., Macavei, B., Sucala, M., & David, D. (2013). Rational and irrational beliefs and coping strategies among Transylvanian holocaust survivors: An exploratory analysis. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 18(2), 179–194. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325024.2012.687322
  • Çorapçıoğlu, A., Yargıç, İ., Geyran, P., & Kocabaşoğlu, N. (2006). Validity and reliability of Turkish version of “Impact of Event scale-Revised” (IES-R). New Symposium, 44(1), 14-22.
  • Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49(1), 71–75.
  • Do, T. T. H., Correa-Velez, I., Dunne, M. P. (2019). Trauma exposure and mental health problems among adults in Central Vietnam: A randomized cross-sectional survey. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 10(31). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00031
  • Doğan, T. (2006). Üniversite öğrencilerinin iyilik halinin incelenmesi. Hacettepe Üviversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 30, 120-129.
  • Durak, M., Durak E., Ş., & Gençöz, T. (2010). Psychomotor properties of Satisfaction with Life Scale among Turkish university students, correctional officers, and elderly adults. Soc Indic Res, 99(3), 413-429.
  • Elal, G., & Slade, P. (2005). Traumatic exposure severity scale (TESS): A measure of exposure to major disasters. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 18(3), 213-220.
  • Erdener, E. (2017). The ways of coping with post-war trauma of Yezidi refugee women in Turkey. Women's Studies International Forum, 65, 60-70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsif.2017.10.003
  • Freitag, S., Braehler, E., Schmidt, S., & Glaesmer, H. (2013). The impact of forced displacement in World War II on mental health disorders and health-related quality of life in late life – a Germanpopulation-based study. International Psychogeriatrics, 25(2), 310-319. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1041610212001585
  • Foa, E. B., Cashman. L. A., Jaycox. L., & Perry, K. (l997). The validation of a self-report measure of posttraumatic stress disorder: The Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale. Psychological Assessment, 9(4), 445-451.
  • Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1980). An analysis of coping in a middle-aged community sample. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 21(3), 219-239.
  • Francis, J. J., Johnston, M., Robertson, C., Glidewell, L., Entwistle, V., Eccles, M. P., & Grimshaw, J. M. (2010). What is an adequate sample size? Operationalising data saturation for theory-based interview studies. Psychology and Health, 25(10), 1229-1245. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870440903194015
  • Gade, D. M., & Wenger, J. B. (2011). Combat exposure and mental health: the long-term effects among US Vietnam and Gulf war veterans. Health Econ., 20, 401-416. https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.1594
  • Gençöz, F., Gençöz, T., & Bozo, Ö. (2006). Hierarchical dimensions of coping styles: A study conducted with Turkish university students. Social Behavior and Personality, 34(5), 525-534.
  • Goldstein, R. D., Wampler, N. S., & Wise, P. H. (1997). War experiences and distress symptoms of Bosnian children. Pediatrics, 100(5), 873-877.
  • Güler, Y. Ç., & Gazioğlu, A. E. İ. (2008). Rehberlik ve psikolojik danışmanlık öğrencilerinde öznel iyi olma hali, psikiyatrik belirtiler ve bazı kişilk özellikleri: Karşılaştırmalı bir çalışma. Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Buca Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 23, 107-114.
  • Gün, Z., & Bayraktar, F. (2008). Türkiye’de iç göçün ergenlerin uyumundaki rolü. Türk Psikiyatri Dergisi, 19(2), 167-176.
  • Horowitz, M., Wilner, N., & Alvarez, W. (1979). Impact of Event Scale: A measure of subjective stress. Psychosomatic Medicine, 41(3), 209–218.
  • Işıklı, S. (2006). Travma sonrası stres belirtileri olan bireylerde olaya ilişkin dikkat yanlılığı, ayrışma düzeyi ve çalışma belleği uzamı arasındaki ilişkiler [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Hacettepe University.
  • Johnson, R. J., Antonaccio, O., Botchkovar, E., & Hobfoll, S. E. (2022). War trauma and PTSD in Ukraine’s civilian population: comparing urban-dwelling to internally displaced persons. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol, 57, 1807–1816. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-021-02176-9
  • Khamis, V. (2015). Coping with war trauma and psychological distress among school-age Palestinian Children. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 85(1), 72-79. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000039
  • Lazarus, R.S. & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer Publishing.
  • Manzanero, A. L., Crespo, M., Barón, S., Scott, T., El-Astal, S., & Hemaid, F. (2021). Traumatic Events Exposure and Psychological Trauma in Children Victims of War in the Gaza Strip. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(3-4), 1568–1587. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517742911
  • Moen, T. (2006). Reflections on the narrative research approach. International Journal of Qualitative Methods. 5(4), 56-69. https://doi.org/10.1177/160940690600500405
  • Mundy, S. S., Foss, S. L. W., Poulsen, S., Hjorthøj, C., & Carlsson, J. (2020). Sex differences in trauma exposure and symptomatology in trauma-affected rrefugees. Psychiatry Research, 293, 113445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113445
  • Nieswiadomy, R. M. (2002). Foundations of nursing research (4th ed.). Pearson Education.
  • Pavot, W., Diener, E., Colvin, C. R., & Sandvik, E. (1991). Further validation of the satisfaction with life scale: Evidence for the cross-method convergence of well-being measures. Journal of Personality Assessment, 57(1), 149–161.
  • Siva, A. N. (1991). Coping with stress, learned powerfulness, and depression among infertile people. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Hacettepe University.
  • Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S., (2007). Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.). Pearson Education.
  • Taylor, R. (1990). Interpretation of the correlation coefficient: A basic review. JDMS, 6(1), 35-39.
  • Veronese, G., & Pepe, A. (2017). Sense of coherence as a determinant of psychological well-being across professional groups of aid workers exposed to war trauma. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 32(13), 1899–1920. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515590125
  • Veronese, G., Pepe, A., Jaradah, A., Murannak, F., & Hamdouna, H. (2017). We must cooperate with one another against the enemy: agency and activism in school-aged children as protective factors against ongoing war trauma and political violence in the Gaza Strip. Child Abuse & Neglect, 70, 364-76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.06.027
  • Weiss, D. S., & Marmar, C. R. (1997). The Impact of Event Scale - Revised. In J. Wilson & T. M. Keane (Eds.), Assessing psychological trauma and PTSD (pp. 399-411). Guilford.
  • Wildth, H., Umanos, J., Khanzada, N. K., Saleh, M., Rahman, H. U., & Zakowski, S. G. (2017). War trauma, psychological distress, and coping among Afghan civilians seeking primary health care. International Perspectives in Psychology: Research, Practice, Consultation, 6(2), 81-100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ipp0000065

A Study for Scale Development: War Trauma Exposure Scale

Year 2023, Volume: 10 Issue: 2, 265 - 293, 31.05.2023
https://doi.org/10.31682/ayna.1202068

Abstract

Despite being widely studied, research only deals with consequences of war. While assessing war effects, the existing instruments take war as a general trauma, simply ask about its existence and skip to the consequences. Thus, there is a gap in assessing what experiences the survivor went through. Aim of the study is to develop a scale that will enable understanding war experiences qualitatively, and also evaluate the impact of them quantitatively, named as War Trauma Exposure Scale (WTES). This study was carried out as part of a thesis (Author), with Turkish Cypriot women in North Cyprus (N = 168) considering Cyprus War. Three phases were followed: interview, pilot study, and psychometric examination. At psychometric investigation, factor analysis revealed three-factor solution: “Negative Emotions”, “Exposure to Violence”, and “Loss”. The overall reliability of WTES was good (r = .91). Both, Impact of Events Scale (IES-R) and the scale were gathered under the same factor with 75.68% variance. Scale showed significant correlations with other related constructs. ANOVA supported that the scale was parallel to IES-R. Chi-square fit test (χ²) revealed a good fit. Consequently, the scale is relatively valid and reliable for measuring war-related exposure despite limitations. WTES, is a distinct one since (1) it directly focuses on war-trauma, (2) lists 23 real war-trauma exposures to be identified, (3) asks the survivor’s war experience and (4) assess its influence. Therefore, unlike existing scales to assess war-trauma, WTES helps to understand unique exposure of the war-survivor and assess the psychological impact these exposures.

References

  • Agbuga, B., Aslan, Ş., Erol, A. E., Dündar, U., & Kepenek, Y. (2011). Relationship between job satisfaction and life satisfaction of sports enterpreneurs. Ovidius University Annals, Series Physical Education and Sport/ Science, Movement and Health, 11(2), 266-272.
  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5 (5th ed).
  • Berthold, S. M. (2000). War traumas and community violence: psychological, behavioral, and academic outcomes among Khmer refugee adolescents. Journal of Multicultural Social Work, 8(1-2), 15–46. https://doi.org/10.1300/J285v08n01_02
  • Besser, A., & Neria, Y. (2009). PTSD symptoms, satisfaction with life, and prejudicial attitudes toward the adversary among Israeli civilians exposed to ongoing missile attacks. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 22(4), 268-275.
  • Bramsen, I. & van der Ploeg, H.M. (1999), Fifty years later: the long-term psychological adjustment of ageing World War II survivors. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 100(5) 350-358. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.1999.tb10878.x
  • Clarkin, P. F. (2019). The embodiment of war: Growth, development, and armed conflict. Annual Review of Anthropology, 48, 423-442. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-anthro-102218-011208
  • Cook, D. A., & Beckman, T. J. (2006). Current concepts in validity and reliability for psychometric instruments: Theory and application. American Journal of Medicine, 119, 166e7–166e16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2005.10.036
  • Cosman, I., Macavei, B., Sucala, M., & David, D. (2013). Rational and irrational beliefs and coping strategies among Transylvanian holocaust survivors: An exploratory analysis. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 18(2), 179–194. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325024.2012.687322
  • Çorapçıoğlu, A., Yargıç, İ., Geyran, P., & Kocabaşoğlu, N. (2006). Validity and reliability of Turkish version of “Impact of Event scale-Revised” (IES-R). New Symposium, 44(1), 14-22.
  • Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49(1), 71–75.
  • Do, T. T. H., Correa-Velez, I., Dunne, M. P. (2019). Trauma exposure and mental health problems among adults in Central Vietnam: A randomized cross-sectional survey. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 10(31). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00031
  • Doğan, T. (2006). Üniversite öğrencilerinin iyilik halinin incelenmesi. Hacettepe Üviversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 30, 120-129.
  • Durak, M., Durak E., Ş., & Gençöz, T. (2010). Psychomotor properties of Satisfaction with Life Scale among Turkish university students, correctional officers, and elderly adults. Soc Indic Res, 99(3), 413-429.
  • Elal, G., & Slade, P. (2005). Traumatic exposure severity scale (TESS): A measure of exposure to major disasters. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 18(3), 213-220.
  • Erdener, E. (2017). The ways of coping with post-war trauma of Yezidi refugee women in Turkey. Women's Studies International Forum, 65, 60-70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsif.2017.10.003
  • Freitag, S., Braehler, E., Schmidt, S., & Glaesmer, H. (2013). The impact of forced displacement in World War II on mental health disorders and health-related quality of life in late life – a Germanpopulation-based study. International Psychogeriatrics, 25(2), 310-319. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1041610212001585
  • Foa, E. B., Cashman. L. A., Jaycox. L., & Perry, K. (l997). The validation of a self-report measure of posttraumatic stress disorder: The Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale. Psychological Assessment, 9(4), 445-451.
  • Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1980). An analysis of coping in a middle-aged community sample. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 21(3), 219-239.
  • Francis, J. J., Johnston, M., Robertson, C., Glidewell, L., Entwistle, V., Eccles, M. P., & Grimshaw, J. M. (2010). What is an adequate sample size? Operationalising data saturation for theory-based interview studies. Psychology and Health, 25(10), 1229-1245. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870440903194015
  • Gade, D. M., & Wenger, J. B. (2011). Combat exposure and mental health: the long-term effects among US Vietnam and Gulf war veterans. Health Econ., 20, 401-416. https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.1594
  • Gençöz, F., Gençöz, T., & Bozo, Ö. (2006). Hierarchical dimensions of coping styles: A study conducted with Turkish university students. Social Behavior and Personality, 34(5), 525-534.
  • Goldstein, R. D., Wampler, N. S., & Wise, P. H. (1997). War experiences and distress symptoms of Bosnian children. Pediatrics, 100(5), 873-877.
  • Güler, Y. Ç., & Gazioğlu, A. E. İ. (2008). Rehberlik ve psikolojik danışmanlık öğrencilerinde öznel iyi olma hali, psikiyatrik belirtiler ve bazı kişilk özellikleri: Karşılaştırmalı bir çalışma. Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Buca Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 23, 107-114.
  • Gün, Z., & Bayraktar, F. (2008). Türkiye’de iç göçün ergenlerin uyumundaki rolü. Türk Psikiyatri Dergisi, 19(2), 167-176.
  • Horowitz, M., Wilner, N., & Alvarez, W. (1979). Impact of Event Scale: A measure of subjective stress. Psychosomatic Medicine, 41(3), 209–218.
  • Işıklı, S. (2006). Travma sonrası stres belirtileri olan bireylerde olaya ilişkin dikkat yanlılığı, ayrışma düzeyi ve çalışma belleği uzamı arasındaki ilişkiler [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Hacettepe University.
  • Johnson, R. J., Antonaccio, O., Botchkovar, E., & Hobfoll, S. E. (2022). War trauma and PTSD in Ukraine’s civilian population: comparing urban-dwelling to internally displaced persons. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol, 57, 1807–1816. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-021-02176-9
  • Khamis, V. (2015). Coping with war trauma and psychological distress among school-age Palestinian Children. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 85(1), 72-79. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000039
  • Lazarus, R.S. & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer Publishing.
  • Manzanero, A. L., Crespo, M., Barón, S., Scott, T., El-Astal, S., & Hemaid, F. (2021). Traumatic Events Exposure and Psychological Trauma in Children Victims of War in the Gaza Strip. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(3-4), 1568–1587. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517742911
  • Moen, T. (2006). Reflections on the narrative research approach. International Journal of Qualitative Methods. 5(4), 56-69. https://doi.org/10.1177/160940690600500405
  • Mundy, S. S., Foss, S. L. W., Poulsen, S., Hjorthøj, C., & Carlsson, J. (2020). Sex differences in trauma exposure and symptomatology in trauma-affected rrefugees. Psychiatry Research, 293, 113445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113445
  • Nieswiadomy, R. M. (2002). Foundations of nursing research (4th ed.). Pearson Education.
  • Pavot, W., Diener, E., Colvin, C. R., & Sandvik, E. (1991). Further validation of the satisfaction with life scale: Evidence for the cross-method convergence of well-being measures. Journal of Personality Assessment, 57(1), 149–161.
  • Siva, A. N. (1991). Coping with stress, learned powerfulness, and depression among infertile people. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Hacettepe University.
  • Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S., (2007). Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.). Pearson Education.
  • Taylor, R. (1990). Interpretation of the correlation coefficient: A basic review. JDMS, 6(1), 35-39.
  • Veronese, G., & Pepe, A. (2017). Sense of coherence as a determinant of psychological well-being across professional groups of aid workers exposed to war trauma. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 32(13), 1899–1920. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515590125
  • Veronese, G., Pepe, A., Jaradah, A., Murannak, F., & Hamdouna, H. (2017). We must cooperate with one another against the enemy: agency and activism in school-aged children as protective factors against ongoing war trauma and political violence in the Gaza Strip. Child Abuse & Neglect, 70, 364-76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.06.027
  • Weiss, D. S., & Marmar, C. R. (1997). The Impact of Event Scale - Revised. In J. Wilson & T. M. Keane (Eds.), Assessing psychological trauma and PTSD (pp. 399-411). Guilford.
  • Wildth, H., Umanos, J., Khanzada, N. K., Saleh, M., Rahman, H. U., & Zakowski, S. G. (2017). War trauma, psychological distress, and coping among Afghan civilians seeking primary health care. International Perspectives in Psychology: Research, Practice, Consultation, 6(2), 81-100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ipp0000065
There are 41 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language English
Subjects Psychology
Journal Section Research Article
Authors

Nurten Özüorçun Küçükertan 0000-0002-1843-8874

Ayşe Nuray Karancı 0000-0003-1632-3851

Publication Date May 31, 2023
Submission Date November 17, 2022
Acceptance Date April 16, 2023
Published in Issue Year 2023 Volume: 10 Issue: 2

Cite

APA Özüorçun Küçükertan, N., & Karancı, A. N. (2023). A Study for Scale Development: War Trauma Exposure Scale. AYNA Klinik Psikoloji Dergisi, 10(2), 265-293. https://doi.org/10.31682/ayna.1202068