YUNAN MİLLİYETÇİLİĞİ AVRUPALILAŞMAYA KARŞI: ETNİK MİLLİYETÇİLİKTEN SİVİL MİLLİYETÇİLİĞE BİR DÖNÜŞÜM MÜ?

Year 2019, Volume: 8 Issue: 2, 201 - 234, 20.12.2019

Gizem Alioğlu Çakmak

https://doi.org/10.30903/Balkan.657714

Abstract

Yunanistan’da etnik milliyetçilik, 19. yüzyıldan bu yana hem devletin yürüttüğü politikalarda, hem de toplumsal alanda önemli bir etkiye sahip olmuştur. Yunanistan Kilisesi ve eğitim sistemi etnik milliyetçi anlayışın toplumda ve devlette yerleşmesinde büyük rol oynamıştır. Ortodoksluk, Yunan kimliğinin ayrılmaz bir parçası olarak anayasa tarafından tanınmış ve bu tanımlama Ortodoks olmayan Yunan vatandaşlarını ikincil vatandaş haline getirmiştir. Yunanistan vatandaşlık yasasının 1998’e kadar yürürlükte kalan 19. Maddesi Yunan vatandaşlarını “Yunan ırkından olan” ve “Yunan ırkından olmayan” olmak üzere ikiye ayırmaktaydı. 1990’lardan itibaren bu etnik milliyetçi anlayış Yunanistan’ın Batı Avrupalı ortakları ve Avrupa kurumları tarafından eleştirilmeye başlanmıştır. Aynı dönemde hızlı bir Avrupalılaşma sürecine giren Yunanistan’da azınlık haklarında olumlu gelişmeler yaşanmış ve 19. Madde kaldırılmıştır. Bu çalışmasının amacı, Kohn’un etnik-toplumsal (sivil) milliyetçilik sınıflandırması çerçevesinde Yunan milliyetçiliğinin Avrupalılaşma ile ilişkisini analiz etmektir. Bu çalışma, 1990’ların ikinci yarısından itibaren, Avrupalılaşma çabaları sayesinde, Yunanistan’da etnik milliyetçilikten sivil milliyetçilik anlayışına geçiş olup olmadığı sorusunu cevaplamayı amaçlamaktadır.

Keywords

: Etnik Milliyetçilik, Sivil Milliyetçilik, Avrupalılaşma, Azınlık Hakları, 19.Madde

GREEK NATIONALISM VERSUS EUROPEANIZATION: FROM ETHNIC TO CIVIC NATIONALISM?

Abstract

Since its emergence in the 19th century, ethnic nationalism has had a significant impact on both state policies and the social sphere in Greece. The Greek Church and education system played a significant role in the consolidation of ethnic nationalist understanding in society and the state apparatus. The constitution also recognizes orthodoxy as an integral part of Greek identity, which makes non-Orthodox Greek citizens a secondary citizen. Also, Article 19 of the Greek citizenship law, which was in force until 1998, divided Greek citizens into two categories: “Greeks” and “non-Greeks”. Since the 1990s, this ethnic nationalist approach has been criticized by Greece's Western European partners and European institutions. In the same period, Greece underwent a rapid Europeanization process, and there were positive developments in minority rights such as the abolishment of Article 19. This study aims to analyze the impact of Europeanization in Greece on ethnic nationalism, which is decisive at the state and social levels. In doing so, it is to analyze the relationship between Greek nationalism and Europeanization within the framework of Kohn’s classification of ethnic-social (civic) nationalism. This study aims to answer the question of whether there is a shift from ethnic nationalism to a civic (inclusive) understanding of nationalism in Greece due to the Europeanization efforts since the second half of the 1990s.

Keywords

Ethnic Nationalism, Civic Nationalism, Europeanization, Minority Rights, Article 19

References

• ANAGNOSTOU, Dia, “Deepening Democracy or Defending the Nation? The Europeanisation of Minority Rights and Greek Citizenship”, West European Politics, Vol 28, Issue 2, 2005, pp. 335-357.
• BALTSIOTIS, Lambros, “The Muslim Chams of Northwestern Greece”, European Journal of Turkish Studies, Vol. 12, December 2011, pp. 1-31.
• BEREKETEAB, Redie, “The Ethnic and Civic Foundations of Citizenship and Identity in the Horn of Africa”, Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism, Vol. 11, No. 1, 2011, pp. 63-81.
• BROWN, David, “Are there good and bad nationalisms?”, Nations and Nationalism, Vol. 5, No. 2, 1999, pp. 281-302.
• CHIMBOS, Peter D., “Greek Resistance 1941-45: Organization, Achievements, and Contributions to Allied War Efforts against the Axis Powers”, International Journal of Comparative Sociology, Vol. 40, 1999, pp. 251-269.
• CHOUSEYIN, Ali, Continuities And Changes In The Minority Policy Of Greece: The Case Of Western Thrace, Middle East Technical University the Graduate School of Social Sciences, Unpublished Master Thesis, Supervisor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. M. Fatih Tayfur, Ankara 2005.
• CLOGG, Richard, Minorities in Greece: Aspects of a Plural Society, Hurst & Company, London 2002.
• ________, “The PASOK Phenomenon”, Greece: 1981-1989: The Populist Decade, (ed.) Richard Clogg, Macmillan Press, London 1993.
• COUFOUDAKIS, Van, “Greek Foreign Policy, 1945-1985: Seeking Independence in an Interdependent World -Problems and Prospects”, (eds.) Kevin Featherstone and Dimitrios K. Katsoudas, Political Change in Greece: Before and After the Colonels, Croom Helt, London 1987.
• COULOUMBIS, Theodoros A., “Introduction: The Impact Of EC (EU) Membership On Greece’s Foreign Policy Profile”, (eds.) Panos Kazakos and Panagiotis Ioakimidis, Greece and EC Membership Evaluated, Pinter Publishers, London 1994.
• ________, “PASOK’s Foreign Policies, 1981-1989: Continuity or Change?”, Greece: 1981-1989: The Populist Decade, (ed.) Richard Clogg, Macmillan Press, London 1993.
• ________, The United States, Greece, and Turkey: A Troubled Triangle, Praeger Publishers, New York 1983.
• DAYIOĞLU, Ali, “The Rights of the Turkish Minority of Rhodes and Kos in International Law”, (eds.) Mustafa Kaymakçı and Cihan Özgün, The Forgotten Turkish Identity of the Aegean Islands: Turkish Identity in Rhodes and Kos, Eğitim Yayınevi, Konya 2018.
• ECONOMIDES, Spyros, “The Europeanisation of Greek Foreign Policy”, West European Politics, Vol. 28, No. 2, 2005, pp. 471-491.
• FEATHERSTONE, Kevin, “Europeanization’ and the Centre Periphery: The Case of Greece in the 1990s”, South European Society and Politics, Vol. 3, No. 1, 1998, pp. 23-39.
• ________, “Introduction: Modernisation and the Structural Constraints of Greek Politics”, West European Politics, Vol. 28, No. 2, 2005, pp. 223-241.
• FIGGOU, Lia and CONDOR, Susan, “Categorising Category Labels in Interview Accounts about the Muslim Minority in Greece”, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, Vol. 33, No. 3, 2007, pp. 439-459.
• FOKAS, Effie, “Religion in the Greek Public Sphere: Nuancing the Account”, Journal of Modern Greek Studies, Vol. 27, No. 2, October 2009, pp. 349-374.
• GRIGORIADIS, Ioannis N., “On the Europeanization of Minority Rights Protection: Comparing the Cases of Greece and Turkey”, Mediterranean Politics, Vol. 13, No. 1, 2008, pp. 23-41.
• HAAS, Ernst B., “What is nationalism and why should we study it?”, International Organization, Vol 40, No 3, 1986, pp. 707-744.
• HUSEYINOGLU, Ali, “Past and Present of Islam in the Balkans: The Case of Greece”, Avrasya Etüdleri, Vol. 50, No. 2, 2016, pp. 25-48.
• ________, “Questioning Islamaphobia in the Context of Greece”, IRCICA Journal, Vol. 3, No. 6, 2015, pp. 65-95.
• IGNATIEFF, Michael, Blood and Belonging: Journeys into the New Nationalism, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, New York 1993.
• IOAKIMIDIS, Panagiotis C., “The Europeanization of Greece: An Overall Assessment”, Europeanization and the Southern Periphery, (ed.) Kevin Featherstone and George Kazamias, Frank Cass, London 2001.
• KARAKASIDOU Anastasia N., Fields of Wheat, Hills of Blood: Passages to Nationhood in Greek Macedonia, 1870-1990, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 2009.
• ________, “Politicizing Culture: Negating Ethnic Identity in Greek Macedonia”, Journal of Modern Greek Studies, Vol. 11, No. 1, 1993, pp. 1-28.
• KAZAMIAS, Alexander, “The Quest for Modernization in Greek Foreign Policy and Its Limitations”, Mediterranean Politics, Vol. 2, No. 2, 1997, pp. 71-94.
• KERESTECİOGLU, İnci Ö., “Milliyetçilik: Uyuyan Güzeli Uyandıran Prens’ten Frankeştayn’ın Canavarına”, (ed.) Birsen Örs, 19. Yüzyıldan 20. Yüzyıla Modern Siyasal İdeolojiler, İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları, İstanbul 2007.
• KOHN, Hans, The Idea of Nationalism: A Study in its Origins and Background, Macmillan, New York 1944.
• KOLIOPOULOS, John S., and THANOS, Veremis, Greece: The Modern Sequel: From 1821 to the Present, Hurst Company, London 2004.
• ________, “Return to Democracy (1974–2009)”, (eds.) John S. Koliopoulos and Thanos M. Veremis, Modern Greece: A History since 1821, Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford 2009.
• KOSTOPOULOS, Tasos, “Counting the ‘Other’: Official Census and Classified Statistics in Greece, 1830-2001”, Jahrbucher fur Geschichte und Kultur Sudosteuropas, Vol. 5, 2003, pp. 55-78.
• KOUMANDARAKI, Anna, “The Evolution of Greek National Identity”, Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism, Vol. 2, No. 2, 2002, pp. 39-53.
• KUZIO, Taras, “The Myth of the Civic State: A Critical Survey of Hans Kohn’s Framework for Understanding Nationalism”, Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 25, No. 1, 2002, pp. 20-39.
• KYMLICKA, Will, Multicultural Citizenship, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1995.
• ________, “Misunderstanding Nationalism”, Dissent, Vol. 42, No. 1, 1995, pp.130-137.
• MARTIGNY, Vincent, “The Importance of Culture in Civic Nations: Culture and the Republic in France”, Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism, Vol. 8, No. 3, 2008, pp. 543-559.
• McCRONE, David, The Sociology of Nationalism: Tomorrow’s Ancestors, Routledge, London 1998.
• METI, Bledar, Greek Nationalism and the Scope of Its Interrelationship with Albania, AuthorHouse, Bristol 2010.
• OZGUNES, Meriç and TSITSELIKIS, Konstantinos, “Greek and Turkish Reciprocal Minorities”, (eds.) Alexis Heraclides and Gizem Alioğlu Çakmak, Greece and Turkey in Conflict and Cooperation: From Europeanization to De-Europeanization, Routledge, London 2019.
• OZKIRIMLI, Umut, Contemporary Debates on Nationalism; A Critical Engagement, Palgrave Macmillan, London 2005.
• ROUFOS, Rodis, Inside Colonels Greece, Chatto and Windus, London 1972.
• SCHULMAN, Stephen, “Challenging the Civic/Ethnic and West/East Dichotomies in the Study of Nationalism”, Comparative Political Studies, Vol. 35, No. 5, 2002, pp. 554-585.
• SITAROPOULOS, Nicholas, ‘‘Freedom of Movement and the Right to a Nationality v. Ethnic Minorities: The Case of Ex Article 19 of the Greek Nationality Code,’’ European Journal of Migration and Law, Vol 6, 2004, pp. 205-223.
• SMITH, Anthony D., “Civic and Ethnic Nationalism Revisited: Analysis and Ideology”, The ASEN Bulletin, Vol. 1, No. 12, 1996/1997.
• ________, National Identity, University of Nevada Press, Reno 1991.
• ________, Nationalism in the Twentieth Century, New York University Press, New York 1979.
• STEFANIDIS, Ioannis D., Isle of Discord: Nationalism, Imperialism and the Making of the Cyprus Problem, Hurst Company, London 1999.
• ________, Stirring the Greek Nation: Political Culture, Irredentism, and Anti-Americanism in Post-War Greece: 1945-1967, Ashgate Publishing, London 2007.
• VERNEY, Susannah, “Greece: A New Era”, Mediterranean Politics, Vol. 2, No. 1, 2005, pp. 193-200.
• Internet Sources
• ANAGNOSTOU, Dia, “Citizenship Policy Making in Mediterranean EU States: Greece”, EUDO Citizenship Observatory, May 2011, http://eudo-citizenship.eu/docs/EUDOComp-Greece.pdf, (04.11.2011).
• ANAGNOSTOU, Dia and TRIANDAFYLLIDOU, Anna, “Regions, Minorities and European Policies: A state of the Art Report on the Turkish Muslims of Western Thrace (Greece)”, Hellenic Foundation for European and Foreign Policy (ELIAMEP), 2004, http://www.eliamep.gr/wp-content/uploads/en/2008/10/state%2520of%2520art%2520greece%2520final.pdf, (07.10.2019).
• CHRISTOPOULOS, Dimitris. “Centre for European Constitutional Law The Rigas Network Databank”, Reports on Governance and Minorities in South-Eastern Europe, n.d. http://www.cecl.gr/RigasNetwork/databank/REPORTS/r20/GR_20_Christopoulos.html, (06.02.2011).
• CHRYSOLORAS, Nikos, “Why Orthodoxy? Religion and Nationalism in Greek Political Culture”, Department of Government and Hellenic Observatory, LSE, 2008, http://www2.lse.ac.uk/europeanInstitute/research/hellenicObservatory/pdf/1st_Symposium/NicosChrysoloras1stLSESymposiumPaper.pdf, (06.10.2019).
• Council of Europe, “European Commission against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI), ECRI's country-by-country approach: Report on Greece”, Council of Europe, September 1997, https://www.refworld.org/docid/51bee2e54.html, (22.11.2019).
• Human Rights Watch, Human Rights Watch World Report 1997 – Greece, Human Rights Watch, https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6a8aa10.html, (22.11.2019)
• Human Rights Watch, Human Rights Watch World Report 1999 – Greece, Human Rights Watch, https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6a8b78.html, (22.11.2019).
• MARUSIC, Sinisa Jakov, “Athens Slams BBC over ‘Greece’s Macedonian Minority’ Report”, Balkan Insight, 26 February 2019, https://balkaninsight.com/2019/02/26/athens-slams-bbc-over-greeces-macedonian-minority-report/, (29.10.2019).
• STEFANIDIS, Ioannis D., “Pressure Groups and Greek Foreign Policy 1945-67”, The Hellenic Observatory, The European Institute, London School of Economics & Political Science, 2008, http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/5710/1/StefanidisDiscussionPaper6.pdf, (10.06.2019).
• The Course of Greece in the European Union, Official Web Site of Greek Embassy in Washington, http://www.greekembassy.org/embassy/content/en/Article.aspx?office=1&folder=39&article=50, (02.01.2012).
• TSITSELIKIS, Konstantinos, “Citizenship in Greece: Present Challenges for Future Changes”, KEMO editions, 2005, http://www.kemo.gr/index.php?sec=show&item=33, (02.06.2011).
• TvNet, “Stateless”, TV Net Documentary on the Turks of Western Thrace, https://www.tvnet.com.tr/belgesel/vatansiz-2126756, (27.11.2019).
• UNHCR, Human Rights Watch World Report 1994 - Greece, Human Rights Watch, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/467fca8d1e.html, (06.10.2019).
• United Nations, The United Nations Treaty Collections, http://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=IV-4&chapter=4&lang=en, (07.10.2019).
• Interviews
• Interview with Alexis Heraclides in Athens, 20 October 2019.
• Interview with Dimitris Christopoulos in Athens, January 2016.
• Interview with Huseyin Zeybek in Athens, 31 March 2016.
• Interview with Mustafa Mustafa in Athens, 18 March 2016.