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Türkiye'de Kamu Eğitim Harcamaları ve Gelir Eşitsizliği: Bölgesel Panel ARDL Analizi

Year 2025, Volume: 16 Issue: 32, 88 - 107, 30.11.2025
https://doi.org/10.47129/bartiniibf.1683259
https://izlik.org/JA37ZB37EF

Abstract

Ekonomik eşitsizlik, özellikle kamu politikalarının eşitsizlikleri azaltmadaki rolüne ilişkin olarak uzun zamandır tartışılan bir konu olmuştur. Bu çalışma, 2008-2022 yılları arasında Türkiye'nin IBBS-I düzeyindeki bölgelerinde kamu eğitim harcamalarının gelir eşitsizliği üzerindeki etkisini panel ARDL yöntemiyle analiz etmektedir. Hem kısa hem de uzun vadeli ilişkiler değerlendirilmiş ve Beşerî Sermaye Teorisi'nin beklentilerinin aksine, kamu eğitim harcamaları ile gelir eşitsizliği arasında uzun vadede pozitif ve anlamlı bir ilişki tespit edilmiştir. Bu sonuç, eğitim harcamalarının eşit erişim ve hedefe yönelik politika araçlarıyla desteklenmediği takdirde, gelir farklılıklarını istemeden de olsa artırabileceğini ortaya koymaktadır. Çalışma, bölgesel farklılıkların altını çizmekte ve daha kapsayıcı eğitim reformları için politika önerileri sunarak literatüre katkı sağlamaktadır.

References

  • Abdullah, A., Doucouliagos, H., and Manning, E. (2013). Does education reduce income inequality? Journal of Economic Surveys, 29(2), 301–316.
  • Ahsan, S. M., Kwan, A. C. C., and Sahni, B. S. (1996). Cointegration and Wagner’s hypothesis: Time-series evidence for Canada. Applied Economics, 28(8), 1055–1058.
  • Aksoğan, G., ve Elveren, A. Y. (2012). Türkiye’de savunma, sağlık ve eğitim harcamaları ve gelir eşitsizliği (1970–2008): Ekonometrik bir inceleme. Sosyoekonomi, 2012(1), 120-135.
  • Altınışık, R., ve Peker, O. (2008). Eğitim harcamalarının gelir dağılımına etkisi: Türkiye’de eğitim politikaları ve kamu harcamalarının rolü. İktisat, İşletme ve Finans Dergisi, 23(1), 45-67.
  • Başaran, N. (2023). Kamu eğitim harcamalarının gelir dağılımına etkisi: OECD ülkeleri üzerine bir uygulama. Uluslararası Ekonomi, İşletme ve Politika Dergisi, 7(2), 278-294.
  • Becker, G. S. (1964). Human capital: A theoretical and empirical analysis, with special reference to education. National Bureau of Economic Research.
  • Becker, G. S. (1993). Human capital: A theoretical and empirical analysis, with special reference to education (3rd ed.). The University of Chicago Press.
  • Breitung, J. (2000). The local power of some unit root tests for panel data. In B. H. Baltagi (Ed.), Advances in Econometrics, Volume 15: Nonstationary Panels, Panel Cointegration, and Dynamic Panels (pp. 161-178). Amsterdam: JAI Press.
  • Doğan, M. (2023). Kamu eğitim harcamalarının gelir eşitsizliği ve istihdamla ilişkisinin panel veri yöntemiyle analizi. Maliye Dergisi, 184(1), 171-196.
  • Durgun, B., ve Durgun, Ö. (2023). Gelir eşitsizliği ve insani gelişme ilişkisi: Türkiye örneği. Kastamonu Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 25(1), 45-73.
  • Fernández, R., and Rogerson, R. (1998). Public education and income distribution: A dynamic quantitative evaluation of education-finance reform. The American Economic Review, 88(4), 813-833.
  • Filiztekin, A., ve Çelik, M. A. (2010). Türkiye’de bölgesel gelir eşitsizliği. Megaron, 5(3), 116-127.
  • Gregorio, J., and Lee, J. W. (2002). Education and income inequality: New evidence from cross-country data. Review of Income and Wealth, 48(3), 395–416.
  • Hausman, J. A. (1978). Specification tests in econometrics. Econometrica: Journal of the Econometric Society, 46(6), 1251-1271.
  • Im, K. S., Pesaran, M. H., and Shin, Y. (2003). Testing for unit roots in heterogeneous panels. Journal of Econometrics, 115, 53-74.
  • Jianu, I. (2018). The impact of government health and education expenditure on income inequality in EU. International Finance and Banking Conference FI BA 2018, Theoretical and Applied Economics, 121-134.
  • Kao, C. (1999). Spurious regression and residual-based tests for cointegration in panel data. Journal of Econometrics, 90, 1-44.
  • Karim, M. R. (2020). Public education spending and income inequality in Bangladesh. International Journal of Social Science and Humanity, 5(1), 75-82.
  • Kayet, A., and Mondal, D. (2015). Effects of public-school education expenditure on income inequality: Evidence from 15 major states of rural India. Scholars Journal of Economics, Business and Management, 2(10A), 1021-1031.
  • Kuznets, S. (1955). Economic growth and income inequality. The American Economic Review, 45(1), 1–28.
  • Lu, Z. (2022). The nonlinear effects of public education expenditure on income inequality: A panel threshold regression analysis of 31 provinces in China. BDEIM 2022 Conference Proceedings.
  • Meltzer, A. H., and Richard, S. F. (1981). A rational theory of the size of government. Journal of Political Economy, 89(5), 914–927.
  • Murthy, N. R. (1994). Wagner's law, spurious in Mexico or misspecification: A reply. Public Finance/Finances Publiques, 49(3), 423–427.
  • Ojha, V. P. (2017). The impact of public education expenditure on economic growth and income distribution in India. Business Analyst, 37(2), 9-37.
  • Oxley, L. (1994). Cointegration, causality, and Wagner’s law: A test for Britain 1870–1913. Scottish Journal of Political Economy, 41(3), 286–298.
  • Özdemir, Ö. A. (2021). Kamu eğitim harcamaları ve gelir dağılımı eşitsizliği üzerine bir nedensellik analizi: Türkiye örneği. Avrasya Sosyal ve Ekonomi Araştırmaları Dergisi, 8(3), 576-592.
  • Pedroni, P. (1999). Critical values for cointegration tests in heterogeneous panels with multiple regressors. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 61, 653-670.
  • Pedroni, P. (2001). Fully-Modified OLS for Heterogeneous Cointegrated Panels. Advances in Econometrics, 15, 93-130.
  • Pesaran, M. H., and Smith, R. (1995). Estimating long-run relationships from dynamic heterogeneous panels. Journal of Econometrics, 68(1), 79-113.
  • Pesaran, M. H., Shin, Y., and Smith, R. P. (1999). Pooled mean group estimation of dynamic heterogeneous panels. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 94(446), 621-634.
  • Shamsolahi, R., Zahed Gharavi, M., and Asayesh, H. (2022). The effect of income distribution inequality on government education expenditure in Iran’s economy: New evidence from an ARDL approach. Stable Economy, 2(4), 135–154.
  • Sipahi, B. (2021). Türkiye’de eğitim harcamaları, gelir dağılımı ve enflasyon ilişkisi: Eşbütünleşme analizi. Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli Üniversitesi SBE Dergisi, 11(2), 553-567.
  • Tanninen, H. (1999). Income inequality, government expenditures, and growth. Applied Economics, 31(9), 1109–1117.
  • Thornton, J. (1999). Cointegration, causality and Wagner’s law in 19th century Europe. Applied Economics Letters, 6(7), 413–416.
  • Ulusoy, A., Karakurt, B., ve Akbulut, E. (2015). Eğitim harcamalarının gelir dağılımına etkisi: Türkiye’de yükseköğretimin gelir eşitsizliğini giderici işlevi. Maliye Araştırmaları Dergisi, 1(2), 45-67.
  • Voto, T. P., and Ngepah, N. (2024). Income inequality: The effects of public education expenditure and information and communications technology in sub-Saharan Africa. South African Journal of Economic and Management Sciences, 27(1), a5647.
  • Wagner, A. (1883). Staat in nationalökonomischer Hinsicht. In Finanzwissenschaft, Handbuch der politischen Ökonomie (3rd ed.). Leipzig.
  • Wagner, A. (1912). Three extracts on public finance. In R. A. Musgrave & A. T. Peacock (Eds.), Classics in the theory of public finance. Macmillan.
  • Yalçın, A., Yılmaztürk, E., ve Yıldız, E. (2023). Kamu eğitim harcamalarının gelir eşitsizliği üzerindeki etkisi: OECD ülkeleri için panel veri analizi. İktisat ve Toplum Dergisi, 10(1), 75-98.

Public Education Expenditures and Income Inequality in Türkiye: A Regional Panel ARDL Analysis

Year 2025, Volume: 16 Issue: 32, 88 - 107, 30.11.2025
https://doi.org/10.47129/bartiniibf.1683259
https://izlik.org/JA37ZB37EF

Abstract

Economic inequality has long been a subject of debate, particularly with regard to the role of public policies in reducing inequalities. This study investigates the impact of public education expenditures on income inequality in the NUTS-1 regions of Türkiye between 2008 and 2022. In a panel ARDL framework, it analyzes both short and long-run relationships between education expenditures and income inequality. Contrary to the expectations of Human Capital Theory, the results show that there is a positive and significant long-run relationship between public education expenditures and income inequality. These findings suggest that without equal access and targeted policies, increased education spending may inadvertently widen income gaps. The study contributes to the literature by highlighting regional differences and providing policy recommendations for more inclusive education reforms.

References

  • Abdullah, A., Doucouliagos, H., and Manning, E. (2013). Does education reduce income inequality? Journal of Economic Surveys, 29(2), 301–316.
  • Ahsan, S. M., Kwan, A. C. C., and Sahni, B. S. (1996). Cointegration and Wagner’s hypothesis: Time-series evidence for Canada. Applied Economics, 28(8), 1055–1058.
  • Aksoğan, G., ve Elveren, A. Y. (2012). Türkiye’de savunma, sağlık ve eğitim harcamaları ve gelir eşitsizliği (1970–2008): Ekonometrik bir inceleme. Sosyoekonomi, 2012(1), 120-135.
  • Altınışık, R., ve Peker, O. (2008). Eğitim harcamalarının gelir dağılımına etkisi: Türkiye’de eğitim politikaları ve kamu harcamalarının rolü. İktisat, İşletme ve Finans Dergisi, 23(1), 45-67.
  • Başaran, N. (2023). Kamu eğitim harcamalarının gelir dağılımına etkisi: OECD ülkeleri üzerine bir uygulama. Uluslararası Ekonomi, İşletme ve Politika Dergisi, 7(2), 278-294.
  • Becker, G. S. (1964). Human capital: A theoretical and empirical analysis, with special reference to education. National Bureau of Economic Research.
  • Becker, G. S. (1993). Human capital: A theoretical and empirical analysis, with special reference to education (3rd ed.). The University of Chicago Press.
  • Breitung, J. (2000). The local power of some unit root tests for panel data. In B. H. Baltagi (Ed.), Advances in Econometrics, Volume 15: Nonstationary Panels, Panel Cointegration, and Dynamic Panels (pp. 161-178). Amsterdam: JAI Press.
  • Doğan, M. (2023). Kamu eğitim harcamalarının gelir eşitsizliği ve istihdamla ilişkisinin panel veri yöntemiyle analizi. Maliye Dergisi, 184(1), 171-196.
  • Durgun, B., ve Durgun, Ö. (2023). Gelir eşitsizliği ve insani gelişme ilişkisi: Türkiye örneği. Kastamonu Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 25(1), 45-73.
  • Fernández, R., and Rogerson, R. (1998). Public education and income distribution: A dynamic quantitative evaluation of education-finance reform. The American Economic Review, 88(4), 813-833.
  • Filiztekin, A., ve Çelik, M. A. (2010). Türkiye’de bölgesel gelir eşitsizliği. Megaron, 5(3), 116-127.
  • Gregorio, J., and Lee, J. W. (2002). Education and income inequality: New evidence from cross-country data. Review of Income and Wealth, 48(3), 395–416.
  • Hausman, J. A. (1978). Specification tests in econometrics. Econometrica: Journal of the Econometric Society, 46(6), 1251-1271.
  • Im, K. S., Pesaran, M. H., and Shin, Y. (2003). Testing for unit roots in heterogeneous panels. Journal of Econometrics, 115, 53-74.
  • Jianu, I. (2018). The impact of government health and education expenditure on income inequality in EU. International Finance and Banking Conference FI BA 2018, Theoretical and Applied Economics, 121-134.
  • Kao, C. (1999). Spurious regression and residual-based tests for cointegration in panel data. Journal of Econometrics, 90, 1-44.
  • Karim, M. R. (2020). Public education spending and income inequality in Bangladesh. International Journal of Social Science and Humanity, 5(1), 75-82.
  • Kayet, A., and Mondal, D. (2015). Effects of public-school education expenditure on income inequality: Evidence from 15 major states of rural India. Scholars Journal of Economics, Business and Management, 2(10A), 1021-1031.
  • Kuznets, S. (1955). Economic growth and income inequality. The American Economic Review, 45(1), 1–28.
  • Lu, Z. (2022). The nonlinear effects of public education expenditure on income inequality: A panel threshold regression analysis of 31 provinces in China. BDEIM 2022 Conference Proceedings.
  • Meltzer, A. H., and Richard, S. F. (1981). A rational theory of the size of government. Journal of Political Economy, 89(5), 914–927.
  • Murthy, N. R. (1994). Wagner's law, spurious in Mexico or misspecification: A reply. Public Finance/Finances Publiques, 49(3), 423–427.
  • Ojha, V. P. (2017). The impact of public education expenditure on economic growth and income distribution in India. Business Analyst, 37(2), 9-37.
  • Oxley, L. (1994). Cointegration, causality, and Wagner’s law: A test for Britain 1870–1913. Scottish Journal of Political Economy, 41(3), 286–298.
  • Özdemir, Ö. A. (2021). Kamu eğitim harcamaları ve gelir dağılımı eşitsizliği üzerine bir nedensellik analizi: Türkiye örneği. Avrasya Sosyal ve Ekonomi Araştırmaları Dergisi, 8(3), 576-592.
  • Pedroni, P. (1999). Critical values for cointegration tests in heterogeneous panels with multiple regressors. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 61, 653-670.
  • Pedroni, P. (2001). Fully-Modified OLS for Heterogeneous Cointegrated Panels. Advances in Econometrics, 15, 93-130.
  • Pesaran, M. H., and Smith, R. (1995). Estimating long-run relationships from dynamic heterogeneous panels. Journal of Econometrics, 68(1), 79-113.
  • Pesaran, M. H., Shin, Y., and Smith, R. P. (1999). Pooled mean group estimation of dynamic heterogeneous panels. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 94(446), 621-634.
  • Shamsolahi, R., Zahed Gharavi, M., and Asayesh, H. (2022). The effect of income distribution inequality on government education expenditure in Iran’s economy: New evidence from an ARDL approach. Stable Economy, 2(4), 135–154.
  • Sipahi, B. (2021). Türkiye’de eğitim harcamaları, gelir dağılımı ve enflasyon ilişkisi: Eşbütünleşme analizi. Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli Üniversitesi SBE Dergisi, 11(2), 553-567.
  • Tanninen, H. (1999). Income inequality, government expenditures, and growth. Applied Economics, 31(9), 1109–1117.
  • Thornton, J. (1999). Cointegration, causality and Wagner’s law in 19th century Europe. Applied Economics Letters, 6(7), 413–416.
  • Ulusoy, A., Karakurt, B., ve Akbulut, E. (2015). Eğitim harcamalarının gelir dağılımına etkisi: Türkiye’de yükseköğretimin gelir eşitsizliğini giderici işlevi. Maliye Araştırmaları Dergisi, 1(2), 45-67.
  • Voto, T. P., and Ngepah, N. (2024). Income inequality: The effects of public education expenditure and information and communications technology in sub-Saharan Africa. South African Journal of Economic and Management Sciences, 27(1), a5647.
  • Wagner, A. (1883). Staat in nationalökonomischer Hinsicht. In Finanzwissenschaft, Handbuch der politischen Ökonomie (3rd ed.). Leipzig.
  • Wagner, A. (1912). Three extracts on public finance. In R. A. Musgrave & A. T. Peacock (Eds.), Classics in the theory of public finance. Macmillan.
  • Yalçın, A., Yılmaztürk, E., ve Yıldız, E. (2023). Kamu eğitim harcamalarının gelir eşitsizliği üzerindeki etkisi: OECD ülkeleri için panel veri analizi. İktisat ve Toplum Dergisi, 10(1), 75-98.
There are 39 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language Turkish
Subjects Panel Data Analysis, Applied Macroeconometrics, Macroeconomic Theory, Policy of Treasury
Journal Section Research Article
Authors

Serkan Şengül 0000-0001-9891-9477

Submission Date April 24, 2025
Acceptance Date October 1, 2025
Early Pub Date November 30, 2025
Publication Date November 30, 2025
DOI https://doi.org/10.47129/bartiniibf.1683259
IZ https://izlik.org/JA37ZB37EF
Published in Issue Year 2025 Volume: 16 Issue: 32

Cite

APA Şengül, S. (2025). Türkiye’de Kamu Eğitim Harcamaları ve Gelir Eşitsizliği: Bölgesel Panel ARDL Analizi. Bartın Üniversitesi İktisadi Ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 16(32), 88-107. https://doi.org/10.47129/bartiniibf.1683259

Bartın University Journal of Economics and Administrative Sciences is a double-blind peer-reviewed international open access journal published twice a year in May and November, now in its 16th year. The journal is indexed in EBSCO Business Source Ultimate, Index Copernicus, Akademia Social Sciences Index (ASOS), SOBIAD, and Google Scholar. Efforts have been made to have it indexed in the TRDizin Index, and the evaluation process is ongoing.

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