Zakariyya al-Quda "Mu'ahadit Fatih Bayt al-Maqdis: al-Uhda alUmariyya"
in Muhammad Adnan al-Bakhit and Ihsan Abass (edes.), Bilad
al-Sham Ji Sadir al-Islam, (University of Jordan and University of Yarmuk,
Jordan, 1 987), vol. 2, pp. 279-283.
Ali Ajin ''Al-Uhda al-Umariyya", A l-Hikma Journal (no. 1 0, 1 4 17
AH), pp. 75 -87.
Daniel J. Sahas "Patriarch Sophronious, Umar Ibn al-Khattab and
the Conquest of Jerusalem", in Hadia Dajani-Shakeel and Burhan Dajani,
A l-Sira ' al-lslami al-Faranji ala Filastin fi al-Qurun al- Wasta (The Islamic -
Frankish (lfranj) conflict over Palestine during the Middle Ages (The
Institute for Palestine Studies, Beirut, 1 9 94), p. 54.
Muhammad Ibn Umar al-Waqidi, Futuh al-Sham (Cairo, 1 95 4),
part one, pp. 2 1 4, 242.
Muhammad al-Baladhuri, Futuh al-Buldan (Cairo, 1 93 6), part one,
pp. 1 14 - 1 45. It is interesting to note that the narrations of al-Baladhuri and
Abu Ubayd (died 224 AH) - in his book A l-Amwal from Abdullah Ibn Salih
from al-Layth Ibn Said from Yazid Ibn Abi Habib - concur that it was
agreed that everything within the City walls should remain in the hands of
the inhabitants as long as they paid the Jizya tax. The areas outside the City
walls would be in the hands of the conquering Muslims. Abu Ubayed alQassim
Ibn Salam, A l-Amwal, (Beriut, 1 986), p. 168. This historical event
undoubtedly ties in with our forthcoming discussion of Islam ' s attitude
toward plurality, conflict, and justice. Moreover, it supports the hypothesis of one of my postgraduate students, Haitham al-Ratrut, in his doctoral thesis
on the status of al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem's early Islamic architecture.
From his study of the historical sources, archaeological and architectural
studies, and reports on excavations in Jerusalem, al-Ratrut attempts to
ascertain whether the area of Al-Aqsa Mosque, on which the Muslims built
the mosque after the conquest, fell outside or within the City walls. The
author is indebted to Haitham al-Ratrut for providing this information and
for introducing him to the narration of Abu Ubayd in his book A l-Amwal.
Al-Ya'qubi, Tarikh al-Ya 'qub i (Beirut, 1 960), part two, pp. 46,
1 67 .
Said Ibn al-Batriq (Eutychius), A l-Tarikh al-Majmu ' (Beirut, 1 905),
part two, p. 16.
Daniel J. Sahas "Patriarch Sophronious, Umar Ibn al-Khattab
and the Conquest of Jerusalem", p. 65.
Al-Tabari, Tarikh al-Russul wa al-Mulwuk (Cairo, 1960), part one,
pp. 2399, 2405 -2406,
Ibn al-Jawzi, Fada 'ii al-Quds (Beirut, 1 980), pp. 123 - 124.
Some investigation needs to b e done about the identity of that
person and whether he had any links with Shi'ite Islam before concluding
that it was an intentional mistake.
Al-Waqidi, Futuh al-Sham, p. 236 .
Abd al-Rahman al-Azawi, A l-Tabari (Baghdad, 1 98 9), p. 134.
Ali Ajin "Al-Uhda al-Umariyya", p. 71.
Welhausen, Skizzen und Vorarbeiten Heft cited by Israel Ben
Zeev (Abu Zuaib), Ka'ab . al-Ahbar: Jews and Judaism in the Islamic
Tradition (Jerusalem, 1 976), p. 37 .
Shlomo D . Goitein "Jerusalem i n the Arab 6 3 8 - 1 09 9 " ,
The Jerusalem Cathedra, 2 ( 1 982), p. 1 7 1 .
Goitein) towards a source that has been preserved fo r more than a thousand
years" . Moshe A History of Palestine: 634-1 099 (Cambridge University
Press, 1 992), p. 73 .
Shlomo D . Goitein "Jerusalem in the Arab period: 6 3 8 - 1 0 9 9 " , p.
169 .
Hussain Atwan, al-Riwaiyat al-Tarikhia Ji Bi/ad al-Sham Ji alA
sr al-A mawi (Amman, 1 986), pp. 231 -2 3 2.
Daniel J . Sahas ''Patriarch Sophronious, Umar Ibn al-Khattab
and the Conquest of Jerusalem", pp. 70-7 1 . For the attitude of Heraclius
towards the Jews in Aelia, see Karen Armstrong, A History of Jerusalem:
One City, Three Faiths, (HarperCollins Publishers, London, 1 996), pp. 2 1 5 ,
233 .
Abdul Aziz Duri " Jerusalem in the Early Islamic period: 7th -11 th centuries AD " in K.J. Asali (ed.), Jerusalem in History (Scorpion
Publishing, Essex, 1 98 9), p. 107.
Ibid, p . 107 see also Moshe Gil, A History of Palestine: 634-
1 099, p. 56. Gil argues that as "one might anticipate, the subject of Jews
appeared important to almost all the Christian chroniclers".
Abdul Aziz Duri " Jerusalem in the Early Islamic period: 7th -
l l th centuries AD " , p. 1 07.
Daniel J. Sahas "Patriarch Sophronious, Umar Tun al-Khattab
and the Conquest of Jerusalem", p. 67. Moshe Gil, A History of Palestine:
634-1 099, p. 70
Israel Ben Zeev (Abu Zuaib), Ka'ab al-Ahbar, p. 3 5 .
Ibid, pp. 3 6-37; see also Karen Armstrong, A History of
Jerusalem: One City, Three Faiths, p. 230.
Moshe Gil, A History of Palestine: 634-1 099, p. 7 1 .
Patricia Crone and Michael Cook, Hagarism: the Making of the
Islamic world (Cambridge University Press, 1 977), p. 1 56.
Shlomo D. Goitein "Jerusalem in the Arab period: 6 3 8 - 1 09 9 " ,
pp. 1 7 1 - 172. Karen Armstrong, in her anonymous referee's report on this
article, commented on Goitein's claim "that the Jews had acted as guides
around the City" by saying that "I have never seen this argued". She argues
that "Jews certainly helped the Muslim army as scouts in the countryside of
Palestine, but it was the Christian patriarch who showed Umar around
Aelia. But the story that Umar brought rabbis with him from Tiberias may
have some historical relevance, even if not literally true. These rabbis were ,not brought to show the Muslims around the Bayt al-Maqdis, the city, but to
act as consultants about the .reconsecration of the Place . . . " .
John Wilkinson "Jerusalem under Rome and Byzantium: 63 B C
- 6 3 7 AD " in K.J. Asali (ed.), Jerusalem i n History (Scorpion Publishing,
Essex, 1 98 9), p. 75.
Ibid, p. 88.
The area of Aelia square miles) contained: the
districts of Herodium and the area west of Jerusalem which was
called Oreine or "Hill Country" . See fi gure 5 in p. 8 9 ; see also
Muhammad al-Maqdisi, A hsan al-Taqasim fi Ma 'rifat al-A qalim, (Baghdad,
1977), p. 1 7 3 . John Wilkinson argues that "the area called Jerusalem in
Aelia Capitolina was thus a very small city", see p. 90.
Karen Armstrong "Sacred Space: the Holiness of Islamic
Jerusalem" , Journal of Islamic Jerusalem Studies (vol . 1 , no. 1, Winter
1 997), p. 5 .
See the manuscript m Israel Ben Zeev (Abu Zuaib), Ka'ab al-
Ahbar, p. 3 9 ; see also Karen Armstrong, A History of Jerusalem: One City,
Three Faiths, p. 23 3 . Moshe Gil stated that "Cairo Geniza documents
occupy first place among Jewish sources, for these were written by
contemporaries of the period". Moshe Gil, A History of Palestine: 634-
1099, p. 70.
Mustafa A. Hiyari "Crusader Jerusalem: 1 099 - 1187 AD " in
K.J. Asali (ed.), Jerusalem in History (Scorpion Publishing, Essex, 1989),pp . 131 - 132. As a result of Fatimid-Byzantium's conflict, al-Hakim in 1009
CE, for example, ordered his governor of Palestine to destroy the Church of
the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem.
Fred McGraw Donner, The Early Islamic Conquests (Princeton
University Press, New Jersey, 1981 ), pp. 322, 287-289; see also Moshe Gil,
A History of Palestine: 634-1 099, p. 71.
Neubauer, Aus der Peterburger Bibliothek, 109 VII, p . 1 2 cited
by Israel Ben Zeev (Abu Zuaib), Ka'ab al-Ahbar, p. 40 .
J. Mann, The Jews in Egypt and Palestine under the Fatimid
Caliphs, pp. 4 3 -47 : Muir, Annals of the early Califate, p. 2 12 ; Dubnow,
Geschichte des judischen Volkes, III, p. 4 1 0 cited by Israel Ben Zeev (Abu
Zuaib), Ka'ab al-A hbar, pp. 37-3 8; see also Moshe Gil, A History of
Palestine: 634-1 099, p. 7 1.
Schwabe 's "Al-yahud w a al-Haram ba'd al-Fath al-Umari" Zion
Journal (vol.2), p. 1 02 cited by Israel Ben Zeev (Abu Zuaib), Ka'ab alAhbar,
p. 3 8 .
Arculf, Eines Pilgers Reise nach dem Heiligen Land um 6 7 0
aus dem lateinischen ubersetzt und erkliirt von paul mickley (Leipzig,
1 9 1 7), p. 29-3 1 cited by Israel Ben Zeev (Abu Zuaib), Ka'ab al-Ahbar, p. 3 8.
Israel Ben Zeev (Abu Zuaib), Ka'ab al-Ahbar, p. 40.
Shafiq Jasir " Al-Taghayrat al-Diymughrafiyah fi al-Quds Abr
Tariykhaha" in Shafiq Jasir (ed.), Jerusalem Ji al-Khitab al-Mu 'asir ,(Jordan, 1 999), pp. 3 3 7-3 3 8 ; see also Moshe Gil A History of Palestine:
634-1 099, pp. 7 1 -72: see .also Karen Armstrong, A History of Jerusalem:
One City, Three Faiths, p. 233 .
Mustafa A. Hiyari Crusader Jerusalem: 1 099 - 1 1 87 AD " , p.
1 70 . During the Latin period only a few Jews lived in Jerusalem near the
Citadel . Saladin' s tolerant policy allowed the Jews to return to the city
Accordingly, they gradually began to constitute a community According to
J. Prawer three groups settled this time in Jerusalem two of them were
Jewish groups: the Jews from Morocco who fled to the East around 1 1 98-
1 1 99, and the Jews from France - some three hundred families - who
migrated in two groups in 1 2 1 0. When Jerusalem was handed over to
Frederick II in 1 229 anti-Jewish legislation of the Crusaders was reestablished
and all Jews were prohibited again from living in the City J.
Prawer "Minorities in the Crusader states" in A History of the Crusades
(New York, 1 964), v, p. 97; Steven Runciman A History of the Crusades
(London, 1 965), I, p. 467; Karen Armstrong, A History of Jerusalem: One
City, Three Faiths, pp. 298-299.
Donald P. Little " Jerusalem under the Ayyubids and Mamluks"
in K.J. Asali (ed.), Jerusalem in History (Scorpion Publishing, Essex, 1989),
p. 195 .
Joseph Drory ''Jerusalem during th
e Mamluk period: 1 250-1517" , The Jerusalem Cathedra (1981 ), p. 213 .
Donald Little "Hararn Documents related to the Jews of late
fourteenth century Jerusalem", Journal of Semitic Studies (vol. 30, no. 2,
1985), pp. 227 -264.
Yusuf al-Qaradawi "al-Quds fi al-Wa'yi al-Islami", Journal of
Islamic Jerusalem Studies (no. l , vol. 1 , Winter 1 997), pp. 1 3 - 1 4 .
Baha' al-Din Ibn Shaddad, A l-Nawadir al-Sultaniyya wa alMahsin
al-Yusujiyya (Cairo, 1 964), III, p. 265 ; see also Donald P. Little
"Jerusalem under the Ayyubids and Mamluks" , p. 1 7 9 .
Ahmad al-Sharif, Dirast Ji al-Hadarah al-lsalamiyyah (Cairo,
1 976), p. 1 2 3 .
Muhammad Said al-Buti "Mu'amalit al-Dawlah al-Islamiyyah li
ghaiyr al-Muslimin: al-Quds Namwudhjan" , Journal of Islamic Jerusalem
Studies (no. 1 , vol. 3 , Winter 1 999), pp. 3 -4 .
Ibid, p . 1 0 .
Zakariyya al-Quda "Mu'ahadit Fatih Bayt al-Maqdis : al-Uhda
al-Umariyya" , p. 276.
Muj ir al-Din al-Alimi, A l- Uns al-Jalil bi tarikh al-Quds wa a/-
Khalil (Amman, 1 977), part one, pp. 25 3 -254.
Zakariyya al-Quda,"Mu'ahadit Fatih Bayt al-Maqdis : al-Uhda
al-Umariyya", p. 276.
Abd Allah al-Bakiriy al-Andalusiy, Mu jam m a lstu}im (Cairo,
1947), part one, p. 2 17 ; see also Shafiq Jasir, Tarikh al-Quds, (Amman,
1989), p. 1 9.
Ibn Kathir, A l-Bidayah wa al-Nihayyah (Beirut, 1 978), part
seven, p. 55.
K.J. Asali "Jerusalem under the Ottomans : 1 5 1 6- 1 83 1 AD " in
in K. J. Asali (ed.), Jerusalem in History (Scorpion Publishing, Essex, 1 98 9),
pp. 206, 2 10, 22 1 .
Moshe Gil added that the "language" o f i t and "its details
appear authentic and reliable and in keeping with what is known of
Jerusalem at that time. Moshe Gil, A History of Palestine: 634-1 099, p. 5 6 .
Philip Hitti, Tarikh al-Arab (Beirut, 1 957), part three, pp. 1 9-
20.
A S . Tritton, The Caliphs and their non-Muslim Subjects
(Oxford, 1 93 0), p. 1 2.
Shlomo D . Goitein "Jerusalem i n the Arab period: 6 3 8 - 1099 " , p .
1 7 1 .
Ibid, p . 1 7 1 .
Ibn Asakir, Tarikh al-Sham (Damascus, 1 3 2 9- 1 3 3 2 AH), part
one, pp. 563 -564. 566-567.
Muj ir al-Din al-Ahmi, A l- Uns al-Jalil bi tarikh al-Quds wa a/-
Khalil, part one, pp. 2 5 3 .:.254.
For example, Haroun al-Rashid ordered in 1 9 1 AH that nonMuslims
in areas near the Byzantine frontiers should have a different form
of address from those of Muslims for security reasons. See Ibn al-Athir, A lKamil
fi al-Tarikh (Beirut, 1 982), part six, p. 206.
Abdul Aziz Diui " Jerusalem in the Early Islamic period: 7th -
l lth centuries AD " , p. 107.
Daniel J. Sahas "Patriarch Sophronious, Umar Ibn al-Khattab
and the Conquest of Jerusalem" , p. 54 .
Daniel J. Sahas "Patriarch Sophronious, Umar I b n al-Khattab
and the Conquest of Jerusalem", p. 60. Karen Armstrong argues that "The
societies that have lasted the longest in the holy city have, generally, been
the ones that were prepared for some kind of tolerance and co-existence in
the holy city"; and "the Muslims got their City back because the Crusaders
became trapped in a dream of hatred and intolerance". Karen Armstrong, A
History of Jerusalem: One City, Three Faiths, pp. 426-427.
Karen Armstrong " Sacred Space: the Holiness of Islamic
Jerusalem" , pp. 14- 18 - 19. Karen Armstrong argues that "the Muslims had
established a system that enabled Jews, Christians, and Muslims to live in
Jerusalem together for the first time". see Karen Armstrong, A History of
Jerusalem: One City, Three Faiths, p. 246: see also, p. 2 3 3 .
Karen Armstrong argues that "on two occasions in the past, it
was an Islamic conquest of Jerusalem that made it possible for Jews to return
to their holy City. Umar and Saladin both invited Jews to settle in Jerusalem
when they replaced Christian rulers there" . see Karen Armstrong, A History
of Jerusalem: One City, Three Faiths, p. 420; for the same view, see Amnon
Cohen, Jewish life under Islam: Jerusalem in the sixteenth century (Harvard
University Press, 1 984), p. 1 4 .
Hz.Ömer'in Aelia(Beytülmakdis) Halkına Verdiği Emanname: Tarihsel Kaynaklara Yönelik Analitik Bir Eleştiri
Year 2000,
Volume: 3 Issue: 2, 47 - 89, 01.08.2000
Zakariyya al-Quda "Mu'ahadit Fatih Bayt al-Maqdis: al-Uhda alUmariyya"
in Muhammad Adnan al-Bakhit and Ihsan Abass (edes.), Bilad
al-Sham Ji Sadir al-Islam, (University of Jordan and University of Yarmuk,
Jordan, 1 987), vol. 2, pp. 279-283.
Ali Ajin ''Al-Uhda al-Umariyya", A l-Hikma Journal (no. 1 0, 1 4 17
AH), pp. 75 -87.
Daniel J. Sahas "Patriarch Sophronious, Umar Ibn al-Khattab and
the Conquest of Jerusalem", in Hadia Dajani-Shakeel and Burhan Dajani,
A l-Sira ' al-lslami al-Faranji ala Filastin fi al-Qurun al- Wasta (The Islamic -
Frankish (lfranj) conflict over Palestine during the Middle Ages (The
Institute for Palestine Studies, Beirut, 1 9 94), p. 54.
Muhammad Ibn Umar al-Waqidi, Futuh al-Sham (Cairo, 1 95 4),
part one, pp. 2 1 4, 242.
Muhammad al-Baladhuri, Futuh al-Buldan (Cairo, 1 93 6), part one,
pp. 1 14 - 1 45. It is interesting to note that the narrations of al-Baladhuri and
Abu Ubayd (died 224 AH) - in his book A l-Amwal from Abdullah Ibn Salih
from al-Layth Ibn Said from Yazid Ibn Abi Habib - concur that it was
agreed that everything within the City walls should remain in the hands of
the inhabitants as long as they paid the Jizya tax. The areas outside the City
walls would be in the hands of the conquering Muslims. Abu Ubayed alQassim
Ibn Salam, A l-Amwal, (Beriut, 1 986), p. 168. This historical event
undoubtedly ties in with our forthcoming discussion of Islam ' s attitude
toward plurality, conflict, and justice. Moreover, it supports the hypothesis of one of my postgraduate students, Haitham al-Ratrut, in his doctoral thesis
on the status of al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem's early Islamic architecture.
From his study of the historical sources, archaeological and architectural
studies, and reports on excavations in Jerusalem, al-Ratrut attempts to
ascertain whether the area of Al-Aqsa Mosque, on which the Muslims built
the mosque after the conquest, fell outside or within the City walls. The
author is indebted to Haitham al-Ratrut for providing this information and
for introducing him to the narration of Abu Ubayd in his book A l-Amwal.
Al-Ya'qubi, Tarikh al-Ya 'qub i (Beirut, 1 960), part two, pp. 46,
1 67 .
Said Ibn al-Batriq (Eutychius), A l-Tarikh al-Majmu ' (Beirut, 1 905),
part two, p. 16.
Daniel J. Sahas "Patriarch Sophronious, Umar Ibn al-Khattab
and the Conquest of Jerusalem", p. 65.
Al-Tabari, Tarikh al-Russul wa al-Mulwuk (Cairo, 1960), part one,
pp. 2399, 2405 -2406,
Ibn al-Jawzi, Fada 'ii al-Quds (Beirut, 1 980), pp. 123 - 124.
Some investigation needs to b e done about the identity of that
person and whether he had any links with Shi'ite Islam before concluding
that it was an intentional mistake.
Al-Waqidi, Futuh al-Sham, p. 236 .
Abd al-Rahman al-Azawi, A l-Tabari (Baghdad, 1 98 9), p. 134.
Ali Ajin "Al-Uhda al-Umariyya", p. 71.
Welhausen, Skizzen und Vorarbeiten Heft cited by Israel Ben
Zeev (Abu Zuaib), Ka'ab . al-Ahbar: Jews and Judaism in the Islamic
Tradition (Jerusalem, 1 976), p. 37 .
Shlomo D . Goitein "Jerusalem i n the Arab 6 3 8 - 1 09 9 " ,
The Jerusalem Cathedra, 2 ( 1 982), p. 1 7 1 .
Goitein) towards a source that has been preserved fo r more than a thousand
years" . Moshe A History of Palestine: 634-1 099 (Cambridge University
Press, 1 992), p. 73 .
Shlomo D . Goitein "Jerusalem in the Arab period: 6 3 8 - 1 0 9 9 " , p.
169 .
Hussain Atwan, al-Riwaiyat al-Tarikhia Ji Bi/ad al-Sham Ji alA
sr al-A mawi (Amman, 1 986), pp. 231 -2 3 2.
Daniel J . Sahas ''Patriarch Sophronious, Umar Ibn al-Khattab
and the Conquest of Jerusalem", pp. 70-7 1 . For the attitude of Heraclius
towards the Jews in Aelia, see Karen Armstrong, A History of Jerusalem:
One City, Three Faiths, (HarperCollins Publishers, London, 1 996), pp. 2 1 5 ,
233 .
Abdul Aziz Duri " Jerusalem in the Early Islamic period: 7th -11 th centuries AD " in K.J. Asali (ed.), Jerusalem in History (Scorpion
Publishing, Essex, 1 98 9), p. 107.
Ibid, p . 107 see also Moshe Gil, A History of Palestine: 634-
1 099, p. 56. Gil argues that as "one might anticipate, the subject of Jews
appeared important to almost all the Christian chroniclers".
Abdul Aziz Duri " Jerusalem in the Early Islamic period: 7th -
l l th centuries AD " , p. 1 07.
Daniel J. Sahas "Patriarch Sophronious, Umar Tun al-Khattab
and the Conquest of Jerusalem", p. 67. Moshe Gil, A History of Palestine:
634-1 099, p. 70
Israel Ben Zeev (Abu Zuaib), Ka'ab al-Ahbar, p. 3 5 .
Ibid, pp. 3 6-37; see also Karen Armstrong, A History of
Jerusalem: One City, Three Faiths, p. 230.
Moshe Gil, A History of Palestine: 634-1 099, p. 7 1 .
Patricia Crone and Michael Cook, Hagarism: the Making of the
Islamic world (Cambridge University Press, 1 977), p. 1 56.
Shlomo D. Goitein "Jerusalem in the Arab period: 6 3 8 - 1 09 9 " ,
pp. 1 7 1 - 172. Karen Armstrong, in her anonymous referee's report on this
article, commented on Goitein's claim "that the Jews had acted as guides
around the City" by saying that "I have never seen this argued". She argues
that "Jews certainly helped the Muslim army as scouts in the countryside of
Palestine, but it was the Christian patriarch who showed Umar around
Aelia. But the story that Umar brought rabbis with him from Tiberias may
have some historical relevance, even if not literally true. These rabbis were ,not brought to show the Muslims around the Bayt al-Maqdis, the city, but to
act as consultants about the .reconsecration of the Place . . . " .
John Wilkinson "Jerusalem under Rome and Byzantium: 63 B C
- 6 3 7 AD " in K.J. Asali (ed.), Jerusalem i n History (Scorpion Publishing,
Essex, 1 98 9), p. 75.
Ibid, p. 88.
The area of Aelia square miles) contained: the
districts of Herodium and the area west of Jerusalem which was
called Oreine or "Hill Country" . See fi gure 5 in p. 8 9 ; see also
Muhammad al-Maqdisi, A hsan al-Taqasim fi Ma 'rifat al-A qalim, (Baghdad,
1977), p. 1 7 3 . John Wilkinson argues that "the area called Jerusalem in
Aelia Capitolina was thus a very small city", see p. 90.
Karen Armstrong "Sacred Space: the Holiness of Islamic
Jerusalem" , Journal of Islamic Jerusalem Studies (vol . 1 , no. 1, Winter
1 997), p. 5 .
See the manuscript m Israel Ben Zeev (Abu Zuaib), Ka'ab al-
Ahbar, p. 3 9 ; see also Karen Armstrong, A History of Jerusalem: One City,
Three Faiths, p. 23 3 . Moshe Gil stated that "Cairo Geniza documents
occupy first place among Jewish sources, for these were written by
contemporaries of the period". Moshe Gil, A History of Palestine: 634-
1099, p. 70.
Mustafa A. Hiyari "Crusader Jerusalem: 1 099 - 1187 AD " in
K.J. Asali (ed.), Jerusalem in History (Scorpion Publishing, Essex, 1989),pp . 131 - 132. As a result of Fatimid-Byzantium's conflict, al-Hakim in 1009
CE, for example, ordered his governor of Palestine to destroy the Church of
the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem.
Fred McGraw Donner, The Early Islamic Conquests (Princeton
University Press, New Jersey, 1981 ), pp. 322, 287-289; see also Moshe Gil,
A History of Palestine: 634-1 099, p. 71.
Neubauer, Aus der Peterburger Bibliothek, 109 VII, p . 1 2 cited
by Israel Ben Zeev (Abu Zuaib), Ka'ab al-Ahbar, p. 40 .
J. Mann, The Jews in Egypt and Palestine under the Fatimid
Caliphs, pp. 4 3 -47 : Muir, Annals of the early Califate, p. 2 12 ; Dubnow,
Geschichte des judischen Volkes, III, p. 4 1 0 cited by Israel Ben Zeev (Abu
Zuaib), Ka'ab al-A hbar, pp. 37-3 8; see also Moshe Gil, A History of
Palestine: 634-1 099, p. 7 1.
Schwabe 's "Al-yahud w a al-Haram ba'd al-Fath al-Umari" Zion
Journal (vol.2), p. 1 02 cited by Israel Ben Zeev (Abu Zuaib), Ka'ab alAhbar,
p. 3 8 .
Arculf, Eines Pilgers Reise nach dem Heiligen Land um 6 7 0
aus dem lateinischen ubersetzt und erkliirt von paul mickley (Leipzig,
1 9 1 7), p. 29-3 1 cited by Israel Ben Zeev (Abu Zuaib), Ka'ab al-Ahbar, p. 3 8.
Israel Ben Zeev (Abu Zuaib), Ka'ab al-Ahbar, p. 40.
Shafiq Jasir " Al-Taghayrat al-Diymughrafiyah fi al-Quds Abr
Tariykhaha" in Shafiq Jasir (ed.), Jerusalem Ji al-Khitab al-Mu 'asir ,(Jordan, 1 999), pp. 3 3 7-3 3 8 ; see also Moshe Gil A History of Palestine:
634-1 099, pp. 7 1 -72: see .also Karen Armstrong, A History of Jerusalem:
One City, Three Faiths, p. 233 .
Mustafa A. Hiyari Crusader Jerusalem: 1 099 - 1 1 87 AD " , p.
1 70 . During the Latin period only a few Jews lived in Jerusalem near the
Citadel . Saladin' s tolerant policy allowed the Jews to return to the city
Accordingly, they gradually began to constitute a community According to
J. Prawer three groups settled this time in Jerusalem two of them were
Jewish groups: the Jews from Morocco who fled to the East around 1 1 98-
1 1 99, and the Jews from France - some three hundred families - who
migrated in two groups in 1 2 1 0. When Jerusalem was handed over to
Frederick II in 1 229 anti-Jewish legislation of the Crusaders was reestablished
and all Jews were prohibited again from living in the City J.
Prawer "Minorities in the Crusader states" in A History of the Crusades
(New York, 1 964), v, p. 97; Steven Runciman A History of the Crusades
(London, 1 965), I, p. 467; Karen Armstrong, A History of Jerusalem: One
City, Three Faiths, pp. 298-299.
Donald P. Little " Jerusalem under the Ayyubids and Mamluks"
in K.J. Asali (ed.), Jerusalem in History (Scorpion Publishing, Essex, 1989),
p. 195 .
Joseph Drory ''Jerusalem during th
e Mamluk period: 1 250-1517" , The Jerusalem Cathedra (1981 ), p. 213 .
Donald Little "Hararn Documents related to the Jews of late
fourteenth century Jerusalem", Journal of Semitic Studies (vol. 30, no. 2,
1985), pp. 227 -264.
Yusuf al-Qaradawi "al-Quds fi al-Wa'yi al-Islami", Journal of
Islamic Jerusalem Studies (no. l , vol. 1 , Winter 1 997), pp. 1 3 - 1 4 .
Baha' al-Din Ibn Shaddad, A l-Nawadir al-Sultaniyya wa alMahsin
al-Yusujiyya (Cairo, 1 964), III, p. 265 ; see also Donald P. Little
"Jerusalem under the Ayyubids and Mamluks" , p. 1 7 9 .
Ahmad al-Sharif, Dirast Ji al-Hadarah al-lsalamiyyah (Cairo,
1 976), p. 1 2 3 .
Muhammad Said al-Buti "Mu'amalit al-Dawlah al-Islamiyyah li
ghaiyr al-Muslimin: al-Quds Namwudhjan" , Journal of Islamic Jerusalem
Studies (no. 1 , vol. 3 , Winter 1 999), pp. 3 -4 .
Ibid, p . 1 0 .
Zakariyya al-Quda "Mu'ahadit Fatih Bayt al-Maqdis : al-Uhda
al-Umariyya" , p. 276.
Muj ir al-Din al-Alimi, A l- Uns al-Jalil bi tarikh al-Quds wa a/-
Khalil (Amman, 1 977), part one, pp. 25 3 -254.
Zakariyya al-Quda,"Mu'ahadit Fatih Bayt al-Maqdis : al-Uhda
al-Umariyya", p. 276.
Abd Allah al-Bakiriy al-Andalusiy, Mu jam m a lstu}im (Cairo,
1947), part one, p. 2 17 ; see also Shafiq Jasir, Tarikh al-Quds, (Amman,
1989), p. 1 9.
Ibn Kathir, A l-Bidayah wa al-Nihayyah (Beirut, 1 978), part
seven, p. 55.
K.J. Asali "Jerusalem under the Ottomans : 1 5 1 6- 1 83 1 AD " in
in K. J. Asali (ed.), Jerusalem in History (Scorpion Publishing, Essex, 1 98 9),
pp. 206, 2 10, 22 1 .
Moshe Gil added that the "language" o f i t and "its details
appear authentic and reliable and in keeping with what is known of
Jerusalem at that time. Moshe Gil, A History of Palestine: 634-1 099, p. 5 6 .
Philip Hitti, Tarikh al-Arab (Beirut, 1 957), part three, pp. 1 9-
20.
A S . Tritton, The Caliphs and their non-Muslim Subjects
(Oxford, 1 93 0), p. 1 2.
Shlomo D . Goitein "Jerusalem i n the Arab period: 6 3 8 - 1099 " , p .
1 7 1 .
Ibid, p . 1 7 1 .
Ibn Asakir, Tarikh al-Sham (Damascus, 1 3 2 9- 1 3 3 2 AH), part
one, pp. 563 -564. 566-567.
Muj ir al-Din al-Ahmi, A l- Uns al-Jalil bi tarikh al-Quds wa a/-
Khalil, part one, pp. 2 5 3 .:.254.
For example, Haroun al-Rashid ordered in 1 9 1 AH that nonMuslims
in areas near the Byzantine frontiers should have a different form
of address from those of Muslims for security reasons. See Ibn al-Athir, A lKamil
fi al-Tarikh (Beirut, 1 982), part six, p. 206.
Abdul Aziz Diui " Jerusalem in the Early Islamic period: 7th -
l lth centuries AD " , p. 107.
Daniel J. Sahas "Patriarch Sophronious, Umar Ibn al-Khattab
and the Conquest of Jerusalem" , p. 54 .
Daniel J. Sahas "Patriarch Sophronious, Umar I b n al-Khattab
and the Conquest of Jerusalem", p. 60. Karen Armstrong argues that "The
societies that have lasted the longest in the holy city have, generally, been
the ones that were prepared for some kind of tolerance and co-existence in
the holy city"; and "the Muslims got their City back because the Crusaders
became trapped in a dream of hatred and intolerance". Karen Armstrong, A
History of Jerusalem: One City, Three Faiths, pp. 426-427.
Karen Armstrong " Sacred Space: the Holiness of Islamic
Jerusalem" , pp. 14- 18 - 19. Karen Armstrong argues that "the Muslims had
established a system that enabled Jews, Christians, and Muslims to live in
Jerusalem together for the first time". see Karen Armstrong, A History of
Jerusalem: One City, Three Faiths, p. 246: see also, p. 2 3 3 .
Karen Armstrong argues that "on two occasions in the past, it
was an Islamic conquest of Jerusalem that made it possible for Jews to return
to their holy City. Umar and Saladin both invited Jews to settle in Jerusalem
when they replaced Christian rulers there" . see Karen Armstrong, A History
of Jerusalem: One City, Three Faiths, p. 420; for the same view, see Amnon
Cohen, Jewish life under Islam: Jerusalem in the sixteenth century (Harvard
University Press, 1 984), p. 1 4 .
Umar's Assurance of Safety to the people of Aelia (Jerusalem): A Critical Analytical study of the Historical Source.
Year 2000,
Volume: 3 Issue: 2, 47 - 89, 01.08.2000
Zakariyya al-Quda "Mu'ahadit Fatih Bayt al-Maqdis: al-Uhda alUmariyya"
in Muhammad Adnan al-Bakhit and Ihsan Abass (edes.), Bilad
al-Sham Ji Sadir al-Islam, (University of Jordan and University of Yarmuk,
Jordan, 1 987), vol. 2, pp. 279-283.
Ali Ajin ''Al-Uhda al-Umariyya", A l-Hikma Journal (no. 1 0, 1 4 17
AH), pp. 75 -87.
Daniel J. Sahas "Patriarch Sophronious, Umar Ibn al-Khattab and
the Conquest of Jerusalem", in Hadia Dajani-Shakeel and Burhan Dajani,
A l-Sira ' al-lslami al-Faranji ala Filastin fi al-Qurun al- Wasta (The Islamic -
Frankish (lfranj) conflict over Palestine during the Middle Ages (The
Institute for Palestine Studies, Beirut, 1 9 94), p. 54.
Muhammad Ibn Umar al-Waqidi, Futuh al-Sham (Cairo, 1 95 4),
part one, pp. 2 1 4, 242.
Muhammad al-Baladhuri, Futuh al-Buldan (Cairo, 1 93 6), part one,
pp. 1 14 - 1 45. It is interesting to note that the narrations of al-Baladhuri and
Abu Ubayd (died 224 AH) - in his book A l-Amwal from Abdullah Ibn Salih
from al-Layth Ibn Said from Yazid Ibn Abi Habib - concur that it was
agreed that everything within the City walls should remain in the hands of
the inhabitants as long as they paid the Jizya tax. The areas outside the City
walls would be in the hands of the conquering Muslims. Abu Ubayed alQassim
Ibn Salam, A l-Amwal, (Beriut, 1 986), p. 168. This historical event
undoubtedly ties in with our forthcoming discussion of Islam ' s attitude
toward plurality, conflict, and justice. Moreover, it supports the hypothesis of one of my postgraduate students, Haitham al-Ratrut, in his doctoral thesis
on the status of al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem's early Islamic architecture.
From his study of the historical sources, archaeological and architectural
studies, and reports on excavations in Jerusalem, al-Ratrut attempts to
ascertain whether the area of Al-Aqsa Mosque, on which the Muslims built
the mosque after the conquest, fell outside or within the City walls. The
author is indebted to Haitham al-Ratrut for providing this information and
for introducing him to the narration of Abu Ubayd in his book A l-Amwal.
Al-Ya'qubi, Tarikh al-Ya 'qub i (Beirut, 1 960), part two, pp. 46,
1 67 .
Said Ibn al-Batriq (Eutychius), A l-Tarikh al-Majmu ' (Beirut, 1 905),
part two, p. 16.
Daniel J. Sahas "Patriarch Sophronious, Umar Ibn al-Khattab
and the Conquest of Jerusalem", p. 65.
Al-Tabari, Tarikh al-Russul wa al-Mulwuk (Cairo, 1960), part one,
pp. 2399, 2405 -2406,
Ibn al-Jawzi, Fada 'ii al-Quds (Beirut, 1 980), pp. 123 - 124.
Some investigation needs to b e done about the identity of that
person and whether he had any links with Shi'ite Islam before concluding
that it was an intentional mistake.
Al-Waqidi, Futuh al-Sham, p. 236 .
Abd al-Rahman al-Azawi, A l-Tabari (Baghdad, 1 98 9), p. 134.
Ali Ajin "Al-Uhda al-Umariyya", p. 71.
Welhausen, Skizzen und Vorarbeiten Heft cited by Israel Ben
Zeev (Abu Zuaib), Ka'ab . al-Ahbar: Jews and Judaism in the Islamic
Tradition (Jerusalem, 1 976), p. 37 .
Shlomo D . Goitein "Jerusalem i n the Arab 6 3 8 - 1 09 9 " ,
The Jerusalem Cathedra, 2 ( 1 982), p. 1 7 1 .
Goitein) towards a source that has been preserved fo r more than a thousand
years" . Moshe A History of Palestine: 634-1 099 (Cambridge University
Press, 1 992), p. 73 .
Shlomo D . Goitein "Jerusalem in the Arab period: 6 3 8 - 1 0 9 9 " , p.
169 .
Hussain Atwan, al-Riwaiyat al-Tarikhia Ji Bi/ad al-Sham Ji alA
sr al-A mawi (Amman, 1 986), pp. 231 -2 3 2.
Daniel J . Sahas ''Patriarch Sophronious, Umar Ibn al-Khattab
and the Conquest of Jerusalem", pp. 70-7 1 . For the attitude of Heraclius
towards the Jews in Aelia, see Karen Armstrong, A History of Jerusalem:
One City, Three Faiths, (HarperCollins Publishers, London, 1 996), pp. 2 1 5 ,
233 .
Abdul Aziz Duri " Jerusalem in the Early Islamic period: 7th -11 th centuries AD " in K.J. Asali (ed.), Jerusalem in History (Scorpion
Publishing, Essex, 1 98 9), p. 107.
Ibid, p . 107 see also Moshe Gil, A History of Palestine: 634-
1 099, p. 56. Gil argues that as "one might anticipate, the subject of Jews
appeared important to almost all the Christian chroniclers".
Abdul Aziz Duri " Jerusalem in the Early Islamic period: 7th -
l l th centuries AD " , p. 1 07.
Daniel J. Sahas "Patriarch Sophronious, Umar Tun al-Khattab
and the Conquest of Jerusalem", p. 67. Moshe Gil, A History of Palestine:
634-1 099, p. 70
Israel Ben Zeev (Abu Zuaib), Ka'ab al-Ahbar, p. 3 5 .
Ibid, pp. 3 6-37; see also Karen Armstrong, A History of
Jerusalem: One City, Three Faiths, p. 230.
Moshe Gil, A History of Palestine: 634-1 099, p. 7 1 .
Patricia Crone and Michael Cook, Hagarism: the Making of the
Islamic world (Cambridge University Press, 1 977), p. 1 56.
Shlomo D. Goitein "Jerusalem in the Arab period: 6 3 8 - 1 09 9 " ,
pp. 1 7 1 - 172. Karen Armstrong, in her anonymous referee's report on this
article, commented on Goitein's claim "that the Jews had acted as guides
around the City" by saying that "I have never seen this argued". She argues
that "Jews certainly helped the Muslim army as scouts in the countryside of
Palestine, but it was the Christian patriarch who showed Umar around
Aelia. But the story that Umar brought rabbis with him from Tiberias may
have some historical relevance, even if not literally true. These rabbis were ,not brought to show the Muslims around the Bayt al-Maqdis, the city, but to
act as consultants about the .reconsecration of the Place . . . " .
John Wilkinson "Jerusalem under Rome and Byzantium: 63 B C
- 6 3 7 AD " in K.J. Asali (ed.), Jerusalem i n History (Scorpion Publishing,
Essex, 1 98 9), p. 75.
Ibid, p. 88.
The area of Aelia square miles) contained: the
districts of Herodium and the area west of Jerusalem which was
called Oreine or "Hill Country" . See fi gure 5 in p. 8 9 ; see also
Muhammad al-Maqdisi, A hsan al-Taqasim fi Ma 'rifat al-A qalim, (Baghdad,
1977), p. 1 7 3 . John Wilkinson argues that "the area called Jerusalem in
Aelia Capitolina was thus a very small city", see p. 90.
Karen Armstrong "Sacred Space: the Holiness of Islamic
Jerusalem" , Journal of Islamic Jerusalem Studies (vol . 1 , no. 1, Winter
1 997), p. 5 .
See the manuscript m Israel Ben Zeev (Abu Zuaib), Ka'ab al-
Ahbar, p. 3 9 ; see also Karen Armstrong, A History of Jerusalem: One City,
Three Faiths, p. 23 3 . Moshe Gil stated that "Cairo Geniza documents
occupy first place among Jewish sources, for these were written by
contemporaries of the period". Moshe Gil, A History of Palestine: 634-
1099, p. 70.
Mustafa A. Hiyari "Crusader Jerusalem: 1 099 - 1187 AD " in
K.J. Asali (ed.), Jerusalem in History (Scorpion Publishing, Essex, 1989),pp . 131 - 132. As a result of Fatimid-Byzantium's conflict, al-Hakim in 1009
CE, for example, ordered his governor of Palestine to destroy the Church of
the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem.
Fred McGraw Donner, The Early Islamic Conquests (Princeton
University Press, New Jersey, 1981 ), pp. 322, 287-289; see also Moshe Gil,
A History of Palestine: 634-1 099, p. 71.
Neubauer, Aus der Peterburger Bibliothek, 109 VII, p . 1 2 cited
by Israel Ben Zeev (Abu Zuaib), Ka'ab al-Ahbar, p. 40 .
J. Mann, The Jews in Egypt and Palestine under the Fatimid
Caliphs, pp. 4 3 -47 : Muir, Annals of the early Califate, p. 2 12 ; Dubnow,
Geschichte des judischen Volkes, III, p. 4 1 0 cited by Israel Ben Zeev (Abu
Zuaib), Ka'ab al-A hbar, pp. 37-3 8; see also Moshe Gil, A History of
Palestine: 634-1 099, p. 7 1.
Schwabe 's "Al-yahud w a al-Haram ba'd al-Fath al-Umari" Zion
Journal (vol.2), p. 1 02 cited by Israel Ben Zeev (Abu Zuaib), Ka'ab alAhbar,
p. 3 8 .
Arculf, Eines Pilgers Reise nach dem Heiligen Land um 6 7 0
aus dem lateinischen ubersetzt und erkliirt von paul mickley (Leipzig,
1 9 1 7), p. 29-3 1 cited by Israel Ben Zeev (Abu Zuaib), Ka'ab al-Ahbar, p. 3 8.
Israel Ben Zeev (Abu Zuaib), Ka'ab al-Ahbar, p. 40.
Shafiq Jasir " Al-Taghayrat al-Diymughrafiyah fi al-Quds Abr
Tariykhaha" in Shafiq Jasir (ed.), Jerusalem Ji al-Khitab al-Mu 'asir ,(Jordan, 1 999), pp. 3 3 7-3 3 8 ; see also Moshe Gil A History of Palestine:
634-1 099, pp. 7 1 -72: see .also Karen Armstrong, A History of Jerusalem:
One City, Three Faiths, p. 233 .
Mustafa A. Hiyari Crusader Jerusalem: 1 099 - 1 1 87 AD " , p.
1 70 . During the Latin period only a few Jews lived in Jerusalem near the
Citadel . Saladin' s tolerant policy allowed the Jews to return to the city
Accordingly, they gradually began to constitute a community According to
J. Prawer three groups settled this time in Jerusalem two of them were
Jewish groups: the Jews from Morocco who fled to the East around 1 1 98-
1 1 99, and the Jews from France - some three hundred families - who
migrated in two groups in 1 2 1 0. When Jerusalem was handed over to
Frederick II in 1 229 anti-Jewish legislation of the Crusaders was reestablished
and all Jews were prohibited again from living in the City J.
Prawer "Minorities in the Crusader states" in A History of the Crusades
(New York, 1 964), v, p. 97; Steven Runciman A History of the Crusades
(London, 1 965), I, p. 467; Karen Armstrong, A History of Jerusalem: One
City, Three Faiths, pp. 298-299.
Donald P. Little " Jerusalem under the Ayyubids and Mamluks"
in K.J. Asali (ed.), Jerusalem in History (Scorpion Publishing, Essex, 1989),
p. 195 .
Joseph Drory ''Jerusalem during th
e Mamluk period: 1 250-1517" , The Jerusalem Cathedra (1981 ), p. 213 .
Donald Little "Hararn Documents related to the Jews of late
fourteenth century Jerusalem", Journal of Semitic Studies (vol. 30, no. 2,
1985), pp. 227 -264.
Yusuf al-Qaradawi "al-Quds fi al-Wa'yi al-Islami", Journal of
Islamic Jerusalem Studies (no. l , vol. 1 , Winter 1 997), pp. 1 3 - 1 4 .
Baha' al-Din Ibn Shaddad, A l-Nawadir al-Sultaniyya wa alMahsin
al-Yusujiyya (Cairo, 1 964), III, p. 265 ; see also Donald P. Little
"Jerusalem under the Ayyubids and Mamluks" , p. 1 7 9 .
Ahmad al-Sharif, Dirast Ji al-Hadarah al-lsalamiyyah (Cairo,
1 976), p. 1 2 3 .
Muhammad Said al-Buti "Mu'amalit al-Dawlah al-Islamiyyah li
ghaiyr al-Muslimin: al-Quds Namwudhjan" , Journal of Islamic Jerusalem
Studies (no. 1 , vol. 3 , Winter 1 999), pp. 3 -4 .
Ibid, p . 1 0 .
Zakariyya al-Quda "Mu'ahadit Fatih Bayt al-Maqdis : al-Uhda
al-Umariyya" , p. 276.
Muj ir al-Din al-Alimi, A l- Uns al-Jalil bi tarikh al-Quds wa a/-
Khalil (Amman, 1 977), part one, pp. 25 3 -254.
Zakariyya al-Quda,"Mu'ahadit Fatih Bayt al-Maqdis : al-Uhda
al-Umariyya", p. 276.
Abd Allah al-Bakiriy al-Andalusiy, Mu jam m a lstu}im (Cairo,
1947), part one, p. 2 17 ; see also Shafiq Jasir, Tarikh al-Quds, (Amman,
1989), p. 1 9.
Ibn Kathir, A l-Bidayah wa al-Nihayyah (Beirut, 1 978), part
seven, p. 55.
K.J. Asali "Jerusalem under the Ottomans : 1 5 1 6- 1 83 1 AD " in
in K. J. Asali (ed.), Jerusalem in History (Scorpion Publishing, Essex, 1 98 9),
pp. 206, 2 10, 22 1 .
Moshe Gil added that the "language" o f i t and "its details
appear authentic and reliable and in keeping with what is known of
Jerusalem at that time. Moshe Gil, A History of Palestine: 634-1 099, p. 5 6 .
Philip Hitti, Tarikh al-Arab (Beirut, 1 957), part three, pp. 1 9-
20.
A S . Tritton, The Caliphs and their non-Muslim Subjects
(Oxford, 1 93 0), p. 1 2.
Shlomo D . Goitein "Jerusalem i n the Arab period: 6 3 8 - 1099 " , p .
1 7 1 .
Ibid, p . 1 7 1 .
Ibn Asakir, Tarikh al-Sham (Damascus, 1 3 2 9- 1 3 3 2 AH), part
one, pp. 563 -564. 566-567.
Muj ir al-Din al-Ahmi, A l- Uns al-Jalil bi tarikh al-Quds wa a/-
Khalil, part one, pp. 2 5 3 .:.254.
For example, Haroun al-Rashid ordered in 1 9 1 AH that nonMuslims
in areas near the Byzantine frontiers should have a different form
of address from those of Muslims for security reasons. See Ibn al-Athir, A lKamil
fi al-Tarikh (Beirut, 1 982), part six, p. 206.
Abdul Aziz Diui " Jerusalem in the Early Islamic period: 7th -
l lth centuries AD " , p. 107.
Daniel J. Sahas "Patriarch Sophronious, Umar Ibn al-Khattab
and the Conquest of Jerusalem" , p. 54 .
Daniel J. Sahas "Patriarch Sophronious, Umar I b n al-Khattab
and the Conquest of Jerusalem", p. 60. Karen Armstrong argues that "The
societies that have lasted the longest in the holy city have, generally, been
the ones that were prepared for some kind of tolerance and co-existence in
the holy city"; and "the Muslims got their City back because the Crusaders
became trapped in a dream of hatred and intolerance". Karen Armstrong, A
History of Jerusalem: One City, Three Faiths, pp. 426-427.
Karen Armstrong " Sacred Space: the Holiness of Islamic
Jerusalem" , pp. 14- 18 - 19. Karen Armstrong argues that "the Muslims had
established a system that enabled Jews, Christians, and Muslims to live in
Jerusalem together for the first time". see Karen Armstrong, A History of
Jerusalem: One City, Three Faiths, p. 246: see also, p. 2 3 3 .
Karen Armstrong argues that "on two occasions in the past, it
was an Islamic conquest of Jerusalem that made it possible for Jews to return
to their holy City. Umar and Saladin both invited Jews to settle in Jerusalem
when they replaced Christian rulers there" . see Karen Armstrong, A History
of Jerusalem: One City, Three Faiths, p. 420; for the same view, see Amnon
Cohen, Jewish life under Islam: Jerusalem in the sixteenth century (Harvard
University Press, 1 984), p. 1 4 .
El-awaisi, A. A.-F. (2000). Umar’s Assurance of Safety to the people of Aelia (Jerusalem): A Critical Analytical study of the Historical Source. Journal of Islamicjerusalem Studies, 3(2), 47-89.