İnsaniyetperverlik ve Millî Kimlik Arasındaki Bağlantının Sığınmacı Politikalarına Yansımaları: Japonya ve Türkiye Üzerine Karşılaştırmalı Bir Analiz

Abstract

This study investigates the impact of humanitarianism and its practical application through humanitarian diplomacy on asylumseeker policies in Japan and Türkiye. It particularly focuses on how these policies are interconnected with the national identities of the countries. Japan’s practices are characterized by a restrictive stance, rooted in its historical emphasis on a homogeneous society and post-WWII alignment with the United States. This alignment has fostered a conservative immigration policy that reflects broader Western values of controlled immigration and stringent vetting, prioritizing cultural cohesion over inclusivity. In contrast, Türkiye’s policies rely more on humanitarianism incorporating Turkic heritage and Islamic values, leading to a more inclusive stance towards asylum seekers, notably Syrian refugees, which is also a strategic response to regional instability and security concerns. The comparative analysis reveals how the interlink between humanitarianism and the national identity of each country influences their asylum policies by unfolding the reasons behind Japan’s restrictive approach contrasts with Türkiye’s more accommodating stance. Understanding these dynamics offers insights into how nations navigate asylum and immigration issues under the influence of humanitarianism and national identity.

Keywords

• Japonya
• Türkiye
• insaniyetperverlik
• millî kimlik
• sığınmacı
• göç

İnsaniyetperverlik ve Millî Kimlik Arasındaki Bağlantının Sığınmacı Politikalarına Yansımaları: Japonya ve Türkiye Üzerine Karşılaştırmalı Bir Analiz

Abstract

Bu çalışma, insaniyetperverliğin ve bunun insani diplomasi yoluyla pratik uygulamasının Japonya ve Türkiye’deki sığınmacı politikaları üzerindeki etkisini incelemektedir. Özellikle bu politikaların her iki ülkenin ulusal kimlikleriyle nasıl bağlantılı olduğuna odaklanmaktadır. Japonya’nın uygulamaları, homojen bir topluma yaptığı tarihsel vurgu ve İkinci Dünya Savaşı sonrası ABD ile olan uyumundan kaynaklanan kısıtlayıcı bir duruşla karakterize edilmektedir. Bu uyum, kontrollü göç ve sıkı inceleme gibi daha geniş Batı değerlerini yansıtan ve kapsayıcılıktan ziyade kültürel uyuma öncelik veren muhafazakar bir göç politikasını teşvik etmiştir. Buna karşılık, Türkiye’nin politikaları daha çok Türk mirasını ve İslami değerleri içeren insancıllığa dayanmakta ve başta Suriyeli mülteciler olmak üzere sığınmacılara yönelik daha kapsayıcı bir duruşa yol açmaktadır ki bu aynı zamanda bölgesel istikrarsızlık ve güvenlik endişelerine stratejik bir yanıttır. Karşılaştırmalı analiz, Japonya’nın kısıtlayıcı yaklaşımının Türkiye’nin daha uzlaşmacı duruşuyla tezat oluşturmasının ardındaki nedenleri ortaya koyarak, insaniyetperverlik ve her ülkenin ulusal kimliği arasındaki bağlantının sığınma politikalarını nasıl etkilediğini gözler önüne seriyor. Bu dinamikleri anlamak, ulusların insaniyetperverlik ve ulusal kimliğin etkisi altında sığınma ve göç konularını nasıl ele aldıklarına dair fikirler sunmaktadır.

Keywords

• Japonya
• Türkiye
• insaniyetperverlik
• millî kimlik
• sığınmacı
• göç

References

1. Abe, Koichi. “Are You a Good Refugee or a Bad Refugee?: Security Concerns and Dehumanization of Immigration Policies in Japan.” Asia Rights, vol. 6, no. 1, 2006, pp. 1–36.
2. Acehan, Işıl. “Ottoman Immigrants and the Formation of Turkish Red Crescent Societies in the United States”. PERCEPTIONS: Journal of International Affairs, vol. 20, no. 1, 2015, pp. 59–76.
3. Akashi, Junichi. “Challenging Japan’s Refugee Policies.” Asian and Pacific Migration Journal, vol. 15, no. 2, 2006, pp. 219–239.
4. Akashi, Junichi. “New aspects of Japan’s immigration policies: is population decline opening the doors?” Contemporary Japan, vol. 26, no. 2, 2014, pp. 175–196, DOI: 10.1515/cj-2014-0009.
5. Ali, Majid Hassan. “The Forced Displacement of Ethnic and Religious Minorities in Disputed Areas in Iraq: A Case Study of the Post-2014 Yazidi Minority.” AlMuntaqa, vol. 5, no. 1, 2022, pp. 76–89.
6. Ashawi, Khalil, and Ali Kucukgocmen. “Syrians worry over Turkey’s opposition anti-immigrant stance.” Reuters.com, 2023, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/anger-fear-among-syrians- amid-turkish-oppositionsanti-immigrant-campaign-2023-05-26/.
7. Austin, Catherine, and Farida Fozdar. “Framing Asylum Seekers: The Uses of National and Cosmopolitan Identity Frames in Arguments about Asylum Seekers.” Identities, vol. 25, no. 3, 2016, pp. 245–265, doi:10.1080/1070289X.2016.121.4134.
8. Avdan, Nazli. “Do asylum recognition rates in Europe respond to transnational terrorism? The migration-security nexus revisited.” European Union Politics, vol. 15, no. 4, 2014, pp. 445–471.

9. Best, Gary Dean. “Financing a foreign war: Jacob H. Schiff and Japan, 1904–05.” American Jewish Historical Quarterly, vol. 61, no. 4, 1972, pp. 313-324.
10. Billig, Michael. “The national nature of globalization and the global nature of nationalism: Historically and methodologically entangled.” Theory & Psychology, vol. 33, no. 2, 2023, pp. 175-192.
11. Boling, Patricia. “Demography, Culture, and Policy: Understanding Japan’s Low Fertility.” Population and Development Review, vol. 34, no. 1, 2008, pp. 307–326, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1728- 4457.2008.00221.x.
12. Bozdoğan, Sibel, and Reşat Kasaba, eds. Rethinking modernity and national identity in Turkey. vol. 7, University of Washington Press, 1997.
13. Carey, Sean. “Undivided Loyalties: Is National Identity an Obstacle to European Integration?” European Union Politics, vol. 3, no. 4, 2002, pp. 387–413, https://doi.org/10.1177/146.511.6502003004001.
14. Chan, Jennifer. “Civil Society and Global Citizenship in Japan.” Japanese Politics Today, eds. T. Inoguchi, P. Jain, Palgrave Macmillan, 2011, https://doi.org/10.1057/978.023.0370838_8.
15. Cihan-Penah. Shelter of the World: Humanitarian Diplomacy from Ottoman to the Present, 2nd Edition, Turkish Presidential State Archives Publications, 2023.
16. CNA (Channel News Asia). “Japan brings in 20 Ukrainian refugees on special flight.” 2022, https://www.channelnewsasia.com/asia/ukraine-invasionjapan-brings-20-refugees-special-flight-2608401.
17. Çolak, Filiz. “Bulgaristan Türklerinin Türkiye’ye Göç Hareketi (1950-1951).” Tarih Okulu Dergisi, no. XIV, 2013, pp. 113–145.
18. Dauvergne, Catherine. Humanitarianism, Identity, and Nation: Migration Laws of Australia and Canada. University of British Columbia Press, 2005, p. 71.
19. Demir, Sertif, and Muzaffer Ercan Yılmaz. “An analysis of the impact of the Syrian crisis on Turkey’s politic-military, social and economic security.” Gazi Akademik Bakış, vol. 13, no. 26, 2020, pp. 1–19.
20. DW. “Is Japan xenophobic like US President Biden Claims?” Deutsche Welle, 2024, https://www.dw.com/en/is-japan-xenophobic-like-us-president-bidenclaims/a-69007303.
21. Duman, Önder. “Atatürk Döneminde Balkan Göçmenlerinin İskân Çalışmaları (1923–1938).” Atatürk Yolu Dergisi, vol. 11, no. 43, 2009, pp. 473–490, https://doi.org/10.1501/Tite_000.000.0299.
22. Erdener, Eda. “The Ways of Coping with Post-war Trauma of Yezidi Refugee Women in Turkey.” Women’s Studies International Forum, vol. 65, no. 1, 2017, pp. 60–70.
23. Eriksonn, Erik Homburger. Identity and the life cycle. W W Norton & Co. 1980.
24. Fukuda, Setsuya. “Marriage Will (Continue to) Be the Key to the Future of Fertility in Japan and East Asia.” Vienna Yearbook of Population Research, vol. 18, 2020, pp. 71–80, JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/27041931.
25. Gilley, Bruce. “Turkey, Middle Powers, and the New Humanitarianism.” PERCEPTIONS: Journal of International Affairs, vol. 20, no. 1, 2015, pp. 37–58.
26. Gillis, John R., ed. Commemorations: The Politics of National Identity. Princeton University Press, 1996.
27. Goc Idaresi. “Distribution of Syrians under Temporary Protection by Years.” 2024, https://en.goc.gov.tr/temporary-protection27.
28. Gomez, Oscar A. “Japan and the international humanitarian system: In the periphery by design, principle or strategy?” Asian Journal of Comparative Politics, vol. 6, no. 4, 2021, pp. 315–329.
29. Liu-Farrer, Gracia, et al. “Neoliberal humanitarianism: Contradictory policy logics and Syrian refugee experiences in Japan.” Migration Studies, 2024, pp. 1–16, https://doi.org/10.1093/migration/mnae007.
30. Haşimi, Cemalettin. “Turkey’s humanitarian diplomacy and development cooperation.” Insight Turkey, vol. 16, no. 1, 2014, pp. 127–145.
31. Honna, Jun. “Japan and the responsibility to protect: Coping with human security diplomacy.” The Pacific Review, vol. 25, no. 1, 2012, pp. 95–112.
32. Hook, Glenn D., et al. Japan’s international relations: politics, economics and security. Routledge, 2011.
33. Ichikawa, Masao., Nakahara, Shinji, and Susumu Wakai. “Effect of post-migration detention on mental health among Afghan asylum seekers in Japan.” Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, vol. 40, no. 1, 2006, pp. 341–346.
34. Ihlamur – Öner, Suna Gülfer. “Turkey’s Refugee Regime Stretched to the Limit? The Case of Iraqi and Syrian Refugee Flows”. PERCEPTIONS: Journal of International Affairs, vol. 18, no. 3, 2013, pp. 191–28.
35. ILO. “Syrians in the Turkish labour market.” International Labour Organization (ILO), https://www.ilo.org/media/80436/download (Accessed: 17.06.2024).
36. Jacobsen, Karen. “Factors Influencing the Policy Responses of Host Governments to Mass Refugee Influxes.” International Migration Review, vol. 30, no. 3, 1996, pp. 655–678.
37. Japan Times. “Number of Ukrainian evacuees to Japan reaches 1000.” 2022, https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2022/05/21/national/refugees-ukraine-1000/.
38. Japan Times. “Japan granted refugee status to a record 74 people in 2021.” 2022, https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2022/05/13/national/refugee-japanrecord/.
39. Karakoc, Jülide and Fulya Dogruel. “The Impact of Turkey’s Policy toward Syria on Human Security.” Arab Studies Quarterly, vol. 37, no. 4, 2015, pp. 351–66, https://doi.org/10.13169/arabstudquar.37.4.0351.
40. Kalicki, Konrad. “Japan’s liberal-democratic paradox of refugee admission.” The Journal of Asian Studies, vol. 78, no. 2, 2019, pp. 355–378.
41. Kaneko, Mai. “Beyond ‘Seclusionist’ Japan: Evaluating the Free Afghans Refugee Law Reform Campaign After September 11”. Refuge: Canada’s Journal on Refugees, vol. 21, no. 3, 2003, pp. 34-44, doi:10.25071/1920-7336.21298.
42. Kemaloğlu, A. İ. Bulgaristan‘dan Türk Göçü (1985-1989). Atatürk Araştırma Merkezi Yayınları, 2012.
43. Kireçci, Mehmet Akif. “Humanitarian Diplomacy in Theory to Practice.” Perceptions: Journal of International Affairs, 20(1), 2015, pp. 1–6.
44. Kireçci, Mehmet Akif. “İnsaniyetperverlik, Hayırseverlik ve İnsani Diplomasi.” Kuramdan Uygulamaya İnsani Diplomasi, eds. Kavak, H. Zehra, Kızılay Kültür Sanat Yayınları, 2023, pp. 19-39.
45. Koizumi, Koichi. “Resettlement of Indochinese Refugees in Japan (1975–1985) An Analysis and Model for Future Services.” Journal of Refugee Studies, vol. 4, no. 2, 1991, pp. 182-199.
46. Kowert, Paul A. “National identity: Inside and out.” The Origins of National Interests. Eds. Chafetz, Glenn., Spirtas, Michael., and Frankel, Benjamin. 8(1), 1999, pp. 1–34.
47. Mahdavi, Mojtaba. “A Postcolonial Critique of Responsibility to Protect in the Middle East.” PERCEPTIONS: Journal of International Affairs, vol. 20, no. 1, 2015, pp. 7–36.
48. Mainichi Shimbun. “Japan recognizes record 114 people as refugees at one time.” 2023, https://mainichi.jp/english/articles/20230715/p2a/00m/0na/012000c.
49. Nishikawa, Yukiko. Japan’s Changing Role in Humanitarian Crises (1st ed.). Routledge, 2005, https://doi.org/10.4324/978.020.3029329. Ortmann, Stephan. “Singapore: The Politics of Inventing National Identity.” Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs, vol. 28, no. 4, 2006, pp. 23–46, https://doi.org/10.1177/186.810.340902800402.
50. Özdemir, Erol. “Suriyeli Mülteciler Krizinin Türkiye’ye Etkileri.” Uluslararası Kriz Ve Siyaset Araştırmaları Dergisi, vol. 1, no. 3, 2017, pp. 114–140.
51. Phillips, Janet. Asylum seekers and refugees: what are the facts? Canberra: Department of Parliamentary Services, Parliament of Australia, 2013.
52. Regnier, Philippe. “The emerging concept of humanitarian diplomacy: identification of a community of practice and prospects for international recognition.” International Review of the Red Cross, vol. 93, no. 884, 2011, pp. 1211–1237, doi:10.1017/S181.638.3112000574.
53. Reuters. “Japan’s G7 refugee balancing act: door open for Ukrainians, but not many others.” 2023, https://www.reuters.com/world/japans-g7-refugeebalancing-act-door-open-ukrainians-not- many-others-2023-05-19/.
54. Robertson, Jennifer. “Robo Sapiens Japanicus: Humanoid Robots and the Posthuman Family.” Critical Asian Studies, vol. 39, no. 3, 2007, pp. 369–398, doi: 10.1080/146.727.10701527378.
55. Robertson, Jennifer. “Hemato-Nationalism: The Past, Present, and Future of ‘Japanese Blood.’” Medical Anthropology, vol. 31, no. 2, 2012, pp. 93–112, doi: 10.1080/01459.740.2011.624957.
56. Salem, Paul. “Türkiye’s Image in the Arab World.” TESEV, 2011, pp. 1–8, https://www.tesev.org.tr/wpcontent/uploads/report_Turkeys_Image_In_The_Arab_World.pdf.
57. Sasaki, Masamichi. “Globalization and National Identity in Japan.” International Journal of Japanese Sociology, vol. 13, no. 1, 2004, pp. 69–87, doi:10.1111/j.1475-6781.2004.00054.x.
58. Sato, Yoichiro, and Masahiko Asano. “Humanitarian and democratic norms in Japan’s ODA distributions.” Norms, interests, and power in Japanese foreign policy, Palgrave Macmillan US, 2008, pp. 111– 127.
59. Saxton, Alison. “‘I Certainly Do not Want People like That Here’: The Discursive Construction of ‘Asylum Seekers’.” Media International Australia, vol. 109, no. 1, 2003, pp. 109–120, https://doi.org/10.1177/1329878X031.090.0111.
60. Shin, Gi-Wook, and Michael Edson Robinson, eds. Colonial modernity in Korea. 184(1). Harvard Univ Asia Center, 1999.
61. Smith, Hazel. “Humanitarian Diplomacy: Theory and Practice.” Humanitarian Diplomacy: Practitioners and their Crafts, eds. Minear, Larry and Smith, Hazel, United Nations University Press, Tokyo, 2007, pp. 36–62.
62. Soykan, Cavidan. “The migration-asylum nexus in Turkey.” Enquire, vol. 3, no. 1, 2010, pp. 1–18.
63. Starkweather, Sean. “Cosmopolitan in Form, Nationalist in Content: A Comparative Analysis of Japanese National Identity in the Postwar Era and Today.” The Macksey Journal, vol. 3, no. 84, 2022, pp. 1– 14.
64. Şeyşane, Volkan, and Görkem Tanrıverdi. “States as ‘Humanitarians’: The Turkish Brand of Humanitarian Diplomacy.” Marmara Üniversitesi Siyasal Bilimler Dergisi, vol. 10, no. 1, 2022, pp. 153–178, https://doi.org/10.14782/marmarasbd.993408.
65. Tarumoto, Hideki. “Why restrictive refugee policy can be retained? A Japanese case.” Migration and Development, vol. 8, no. 1, 2018, pp. 7–24, doi: 10.1080/21632.324.2018.1482642.
66. Tokayer, Marvin, and Mary Swartz. The Fugu Plan: The untold story of the Japanese and the Jews during World War II. Gefen Publishing House, 2004.
67. Uchida, Jun. “Brokers of empire: Japanese settler colonialism in Korea, 1876– 1945.” Brokers of Empire, Harvard University Asia Center, 2020.
68. Ulusoy, Hasan. “The Evolution of Turkish Humanitarian Diplomacy in The Centenary of the Republic: Constructivist Perspective.” Yönetim Bilimleri Dergisi, no. 21 (special issue), 2023, pp.726-742, https://doi.org/10.35408/comuybd.1363527.
69. UNHCR Refugee Data. 2024, https://www.unhcr.org/refugee-statistics/download/?url=BnA1pT”.
70. UNHCR Factsheet. “Biannual Factsheet.” 2023, https://www.unhcr.org/tr/wpcontent/uploads/sites/14/2023/10/bi-annual-fact-sheet-2023-09-turkiyeF.pdf.
71. UNHCR Iran. “UNHCR welcomes Japan’s donation of 1.2 million USD to support displaced Afghans in Iran.” 2023, https://www.unhcr.org/ir/2023/02/27/unhcr-welcomes-japans-donation-of-usd-1-2- million-tosupport-displaced-afghan-in-iran/.
72. Veen, Hans‐Joachim, and Carsten Zelle. “National Identity and Political Priorities in Eastern and Western Germany.” German Politics, vol. 4, no. 1, 1995, pp. 1–26, doi:10.1080/096.440.09508404384.
73. Visit Ukraine. “The Japanese government has introduced a new program for Ukrainians: what is known.” 2023, https://visitukraine.today/blog/3025/the-japanese-government-has-introduced-a- new-program-for-ukrainianswhat-is-known.
74. Wahrman, Dror. The making of the modern self: Identity and culture in eighteenthcentury England. Yale University Press, 2004.
75. Ward, Robert, E., and Dankwart A. Rustow. Political Modernization in Japan and Turkey. Princeton University Press, 2016 (originally published in 1964).
76. Whittaker, David J. Asylum seekers and refugees in the contemporary world. Routledge, 2006.
77. Wolman, Andrew. “Japan and international refugee protection norms: Explaining non-compliance.” Asian and Pacific Migration Journal, vol. 24, no. 4, 2015, pp. 409–443, doi: 10.1177/011.719.6815606852.
78. Yamagata, Atsushi. “Conflicting Japanese Responses to the Syrian Refugee Crisis.” The Asia-Pacific Journal, vol. 15, no. 24, 2017, pp. 1–27.