DIŞ POLİTİKA VE KOMPLO TEORİLERİ: KOMPLOCU ANLATILARIN AVRUPA POPÜLİST HAREKETLERİ VE PARTİLERİ ÜZERİNDEKİ ROLÜ

Abstract

Komplo teorileri ve siyaset arasındaki ilişki, akademik literatürde giderek daha fazla öne çıkan bir konu haline gelmektedir. Manipülasyon ve dezenformasyon gibi yerleşik kavramların doğruluğuna meydan okuyan bilgilerin çoğalmasıyla karakterize edilen hakikat sonrası dönem bağlamında, komplo teorilerinin daha sık yayıldığı ve daha geniş bir kitleyi cezbettiği açıktır. Bu çalışma komplo teorileri ve dış politika arasındaki ilişkiye odaklanmaktadır. Özellikle popülist siyasette sıklıkla kullanılan komplo teorileri, son on yılda çok sayıda popülist hareket ve parti tarafından kullanılmış ve popülerleştirilmiştir. Bu çalışmanın odak noktası, Büyük Yer Değiştirme ve Eurabia gibi göçmenleri merkeze alan komplo teorilerini sıklıkla kullanan Avrupalı popülist hareketler ve partilerdir. Dolayısıyla bu çalışma, bu hareketlerin ve partilerin söylemlerini analiz etmektedir. Bu çalışma ilk olarak, komplo teorilerini tanımlayarak başlamaktadır. Ardından, tarihsel bir perspektif benimseyerek bu tür teorilerin antik çağlardan beri var olduğunu göstermektedir. İkinci olarak, dış politika ve komplo teorileri arasındaki bağlantıyı göstermek için Birleşik Krallık'ın Brexit kararı analiz edilmektedir. Son olarak, dış politika ve komplo teorileri arasındaki ilişkiyi anlamak için Avrupa'da muhalefette ve iktidarda olan popülist hareketlerin ve partilerin komplocu söylemleri ve bu söylemlerin sebep olduğu kararları incelenmektedir.

Keywords

• Komplo Teorileri
• Dış Politika
• Göç
• Popülizm

FOREIGN POLICY AND CONSPIRACY THEORIES: THE ROLE OF CONSPIRATORIAL NARRATIVES ON EUROPEAN POPULIST MOVEMENTS AND PARTIES

Abstract

The relationship between conspiracy theories and politics is becoming an increasingly prominent topic in the academic literature. In the context of the post-truth era, which is characterised by the proliferation of information that challenges the veracity of established concepts such as manipulation and disinformation, it is evident that conspiracy theories are being disseminated with greater frequency and attracting a wider audience. The present study focuses on the relationship between conspiracy theories and foreign policy. In recent years, conspiracy theories have been employed and disseminated by numerous populist movements and parties, particularly within the context of populist politics. This study focuses on European populist movements and parties which frequently employ conspiracy theories, such as Great Replacement and Eurabia, centred on migrants. Accordingly, this study analyses the discourses of these movements and parties. It begins by defining conspiracy theories, subsequently adopting a historical perspective to demonstrate that such theories have existed since antiquity. Secondly, the UK's Brexit decision is analysed to illustrate the link between foreign policy and conspiracy theories. Finally, the discourses and decisions of populist movements and parties in opposition and in power in Europe are analysed to understand the relationship between foreign policy and conspiracy theories.

Keywords

• Conspiracy Theories
• Foreign Policy
• Migration
• Populism

References

1. Aistrope, T. ve Bleiker, R. (2018). "Conspiracy and foreign policy." Security Dialogue, 49 (3), 165-182.
2. Al Jazeera. (2018, Aralık 10). Kuşak Kimliği Nedir?, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/12/10/what-is-generation-identity.
3. Albertazzi, D., & McDonnell, D. (2015). Populists in power. Routledge.
4. Berry, M., Garcia-Blanco, I., & Moore, K. (2016). Press coverage of the refugee and migrant crisis in the EU: A content analysis of five European countries. UNHCR, https://www.unhcr.org/media/press-coverage-refugee-and-migrant-crisis-eu-content-analysis-five-european-countries.
5. Beauchamp, Z. (2022, 19 Mayıs). The European country where “replacement theory” reigns supreme. Vox, https://www.vox.com/2022/5/19/23123050/hungary-cpac-2022replacement-theory.
6. Bobba, G., & McDonnell, D. (2016). Different types of right-wing populist discourse in government and opposition: The case of Italy. South European Society and Politics, 21(3), 281-299.
7. Boffey, D. (2018, 18 Şubat). Orbán claims Hungary is last bastion against 'Islamisation' of Europe. The Guardian, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/feb/18/Orbán-claims-hungaryis-last-bastion-against-islamisation-of-europe.
8. Broedel, H. P. (2003). The Malleus Maleficarum and the construction of witchcraft: Theology and popular belief. Manchester ve New York: Manchester University Press.

9. Brown, A. (2019). The myth of Eurabia: How a far-right conspiracy theory went mainstream. The Guardian, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/aug/16/the-myth-of-eurabia-how-a-far-rightconspiracy-theory-went-mainstream.
10. Bulli, G., & Soare, S. C. (2018). Immigration and Crisis in a New Immigration Country: The Case of Italy. Hrvatska i komparativna javna uprava: časopis za teoriju i praksu javne uprave, 18(1), 127-156.
11. Butter, M. ve Knight, P. (2016). "Bridging the great divide: conspiracy theory research for the 21st century." Diogenes, 1-13.
12. Camus, R. (2012). The great replacement. https://media.128ducks.com/file_store/d92a5993707de0bea0b3102d4413 a84ae61ab68851f0a7193 9a0878a93ed789e.pdf.
13. CBC Radio. (2020, Feb 27). How the Hungarian border fence remains a political symbol, https://www.cbc.ca/radio/ideas/how-the-hungarianborder-fence-remains-a-political-symbol-1.5476964.
14. Demianyk, G. (2020, 29 Haziran). EU Referendum Conspiracy Theory Believed By Half Of 'Brexit' Supporters, Says YouGov Poll.
15. Huffington Post. https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/entry/eu-referendum-rigged_uk_57691efee4b01fb65864173f.
16. Dunai, M. (2018, 21 Haziran). Hungary approves 'STOP Soros' law, defying EU, rights groups. Reuters, https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKBN1JG1V0/#:~:text=BUDAPEST %20(Reuters)%20%2D%20Hungary's%20parliament,Union%20and%20 human%20rights%20groups.
17. Epstein, Charlotte. 2008. The power of words in international relations: birth of an anti-whaling discourse. Cambridge/MA: MIT Press.
18. France 24. (2021). France bans far-right anti-migrant group Generation Identity, https://www.france24.com/en/france/20210303-france-bans-far-right-anti-migrant-group-generation-identity.
19. Gopalakrishnan, M. (2017). Avrupa'yı savunmak: Avrupa'yı 'mülteci istilasından' korumak. InfoMigrants, https://www.infomigrants.net/en/post/4361/defend-europe--protecting-europe-from-refugee-invasions.
20. Greenslade, R. (2016, 20 Haziran). Sunday Express admits '12m Turks coming to UK' story was inaccurate. The Guardian, https://www.theguardian.com/media/greenslade/2016/jun/20/sunday-express-admits-12m-turks-coming-to-uk-story-was-inaccurate.
21. Grieshaber, K. (2019, Nisan 30). ABD müzesi, sanat eserlerinin Alman aşırı sağcı parti tarafından kullanılmasını kınadı, APNews, https://apnews.com/article/e4a3dca3c7464ca3925e4fe67afda5a6.
22. Gürgen, M. (2021, 14 Nisan). Die AfD und neurechte Ideologie als Motor rechter Gewalt. Heinrich Böll Stiftung Derneği MigrationsPolitisches Portal, https://heimatkunde.boell.de/de/2021/04/14/die-afd-und-neurechte-ideologie-als-motor-rechter-gewalt.
23. Faiola, A. (2016, Mayıs 19). Austria’s right-wing populism reflects antiMuslim platform of Donald Trump. The Washington Post, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/austrias-right-wingpopulism-reflects-anti-migrant-anti-muslim-platform-of-donaldtrump/2016/05/19/73368bbe-1c26-11e6-82c2-a7dcb313287d_story.html.
24. Fenster, M. (2008). Conspiracy Theories: Secrecy and Power in American Culture, Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
25. Hansen, Lene. 2006. Security as practice: discourse analysis and the Bosnian war. Londra: Routledge.
26. Hofstadter, Richard. (1964). The paranoid style in American politics. New York: Vintage.
27. Holzscheiter, Anna. (2014). “Between communicative interaction and structures of signification: Discourse theory and analysis in international relations.” International Studies Perspectives, 15 (2), 142-162.
28. Karaosmanoğlu, Kerem. (2019). Komplo Teorileri: Disiplinlerarası Bir Giriş. İstanbul: İletişim Yayıncılık.
29. Kington, T. (2022, 27 Eylül). Giorgia Meloni is first west European leader to believe Great Replacement conspiracy theory. The Times, https://www.thetimes.com/world/europe/article/giorgia-meloni-is-first-west-european-leader-to-believe-great-replacement-conspiracy-theory-pddmf5vsf.
30. Kirchgaessner, S. (2019, 19 Haziran). Far-right Italy minister vows 'action' to expel thousands of Roma, The Guardian, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jun/19/italy-coalition-rift-roma-register-matteo-salvini.
31. Laclau, E. (2005). On populist reason. Londra: Verso.
32. Langer, A. (2021). The Eternal George Soros: The Rise of an Antisemitic and Islamophobic Conspiracy Theory. İçerisinde
33. Andreas Önnerfors and Andre Krouwel (Eds.). Europe: Continent of Conspiracies: Conspiracy Theories in and about Europe, (ss. 163-184). Routledge.
34. Lichfield, J. (2015, 17 Ocak). Paris attacks: Jean-Marie Le Pen says French terror attacks were work of Western intelligence. The Independent, https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/paris-attacks-jean-marie-le-pen-says-french-terror-attacks-were-work-of-western-intelligence-9985047.html.
35. Mudde, C. (2004). "The populist zeitgeist.” Government and opposition, 39 (4), 541-563.
36. Nardelli, A. ve D’urso, J. (2020, 26 Mart). Italy’s Far-Right And Nationalist Leaders Are Pushing Debunked Conspiracy Theories About The Coronavirus To Millions Of Followers. BuzzFeed, https://www.buzzfeed.com/albertonardelli/coronavirus-matteo-salvini-giorgia-meloni-conspiracy.
37. Oberhauser, C. (2020). Freemasons, Illuminati and jews: Conspiracy theories and the French Revolution. İçerisinde Routledge Handbook of Conspiracy Theories (ss. 555-568). Routledge.
38. Olmsted, K. S. (2009). Real enemies: Conspiracy theories and American democracy, World War I to 9/11. New York: Oxford University Press.
39. Pagán, V. E. (2020). Conspiracy theories in the Roman Empire. İçerisinde Routledge Handbook of Conspiracy Theories (ss. 531-541). Routledge.
40. Plenta, P. (2020). Conspiracy Theories as a Political Instrument: Utilization of Anti-Soros Narratives in Central Europe, Contemporary Politics, 26(5), 512-530, https://doi.org/10.1080/13569775.2020.1781332.
41. Profil. (2014). Chemtrails: Die absurde Verschwörung, https://www.profil.at/wissenschaft/chemtrails-verschwoerung-5369547.
42. Robinson, M. (2016, 23 Haziran). Moment police questioned a Ukip supporter who offered voters a PEN in case their pencil markings on ballot paper were erased. The Daily Mail. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3656171/Usepens-Brexit-backers-urge-voters-pen-polls-case-pencil-markings-erased-MI5-plot.html.
43. Roisman, J. (2006). The rhetoric of conspiracy in ancient Athens. Univ of California Press.
44. Russell, Jeffrey Burton. (1972). Witchcraft in the Middle Ages. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
45. Vohra, A. (2023, 8 Mayıs). Italy Now Has Conspiracy Theory as National Policy. Foreign Policy, https://foreignpolicy.com/2023/05/08/italy-meloni-great-replacement-conspiracy-theory-immigration/.
46. Weyland, K. 2001. “Clarifying a contested concept: Populism in the study of Latin American politics.” Comparative politics, 34 (1), 1-22.
47. Wodak, R. (2015). The politics of fear: What right-wing populist discourses mean. Londra: Sage.
48. Wooding, D. (2016, 21 Mayıs) “BREXIT PENNY’S WARNING Britain will be magnet for terrorists if we remain in EU, claims minister”. The Sun, https://www.thesun.co.uk/news/1198591/eu-is-terrorist-magnet/.
49. Yablokov, I. (2014). Pussy Riot as agent provocateur: conspiracy theories and the media construction of nation in Putin's Russia, Nationalities Papers, 42 (4), 622-636.
50. Yeʼor, B. (2005). Eurabia: The Euro-Arab axis. Taeneck: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press.