The Importance of Exercise and Sports in Individuals with Spinal Cord Injury

Abstract

Spinal cord injuries are injuries that cause motor and sensory losses and lead to disability. In individuals with spinal cord injuries, various complications occur due to the injuries. Individuals with spinal cord injuries face some difficulties in participating in exercise and sports activities. These individuals cannot be very physically active. Physical inactivity causes some chronic diseases and therefore the quality of life of these individuals decreases. Exercises and sports activities are necessary to prevent some complications, combat chronic diseases and improve the quality of life for individuals with spinal cord injuries. The aim of the present study is to provide information about spinal cord injuries, exercise and sports for individuals with spinal cord injuries, and the roles of exercise and sports in chronic diseases seen in individuals with spinal cord injuries. The present study may contribute to increasing the exercise and sports activities of people with spinal cord injuries.

Keywords

• Exercise
• Chronic diseases
• Spinal cord injuries
• Sports

Project Number

Yoktur.

Spinal Kord Yaralanması Olan Bireylerde Egzersiz ve Sporun Önemi

Abstract

Spinal kord yaralanmaları, motor ve duyu kayıplarına neden olan, engelliliğe yol açan yaralanmalardır. Spinal kord yaralanması olan bireylerde, yaralanmalara bağlı olarak çeşitli komplikasyonlar oluşmaktadır. Spinal kord yaralanması olan bireyler egzersiz ve sportif faaliyetlere katılmak için bazı zorluklarla karşılaşmaktadırlar. Bu bireyler fiziksel olarak çok aktif olamamaktadırlar. Fiziksel hareketsizlik bazı kronik hastalıklara zemin oluşturmakta ve dolayısıyla bu bireylerin yaşam kalitesi düşmektedir. Egzersizler ve sportif faaliyetler, spinal kord yaralanması olan bireyler için bazı komplikasyonları önlemek, kronik hastalıklarla mücadele etmek ve yaşam kalitesini artırmak için gereklidir. Bu çalışmanın amacı spinal kord yaralanmaları, spinal kord yaralanması olan bireyler için egzersiz ve spor, spinal kord yaralanmalı bireylerde görülen kronik hastalıklarda egzersiz ve sporun rolleri hakkında bilgi vermektir. Bu çalışma, spinal kord yaralanması yaşayan insanların egzersiz ve spor yapmalarının artması kapsamında katkı sunabilir.

Keywords

• Egzersiz
• Kronik hastalıklar
• Spinal kord yaralanmaları
• Spor

Supporting Institution

Yoktur.

Project Number

Yoktur.

Ethical Statement

Bu çalışmanın hazırlanma ve yazım sürecinde “Yükseköğretim Kurumları Bilimsel Araştırma ve Yayın Etiği Yönergesi” kapsamında bilimsel, etik ve alıntı kurallarına uyulmuş olup; bu çalışma herhangi başka bir akademik yayın ortamına değerlendirme için gönderilmemiştir.

Thanks

Bulunmamaktadır.

References

1. 1. Quadri, S. A., Farooqui, M., Ikram, A., Zafar, A., Khan, M. A., Suriya, S. S., ... & Mortazavi, M. M. (2020). Recent update on basic mechanisms of spinal cord injury. Neurosurgical Review, 43, 425-441.
2. 2. Hasler, R. M., Exadaktylos, A. K., Bouamra, O., Benneker, L. M., Clancy, M., Sieber, R., ... & Lecky, F. (2012). Epidemiology and predictors of cervical spine injury in adult major trauma patients: a multicenter cohort study. Journal of Trauma and Acute Care Surgery, 72(4), 975-981. DOI:10.1097/TA.0b013e31823f5e8e
3. 3. Sekhon, L. H., & Fehlings, M. G. (2001). Epidemiology, demographics, and pathophysiology of acute spinal cord injury. Spine, 26(24S), S2-S12. DOI:10.1097/00007632-200112151-00002
4. 4. Scelza, W. M., Kalpakjian, C. Z., Zemper, E. D., & Tate, D. G. (2005). Perceived barriers to exercise in people with spinal cord injury. American Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, 84(8), 576-583. DOI:10.1097/01.phm.0000171172.96290.67
5. 5. Fernhall, B., Heffernan, K., Jae, S. Y., & Hedrick, B. (2008). Health implications of physical activity in individuals with spinal cord injury: a literature review. Journal of Health and Human Services Administration, 30(4), 468-502.
6. 6. Dearwater, S. R., LaPorte, R. E., Cauley, J. A., & Brenes, G. (1985). Assessment of physical activity in inactive populations. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 17(6), 651-655.
7. 7. Nash, M. S. (2005). Exercise as a health-promoting activity following spinal cord injury. Journal of Neurologic Physical Therapy, 29(2), 87-106. DOI:10.1097/01.NPT.0000282514.94093.c6
8. 8. Post, M. W. M., & van Leeuwen, C. M. (2012). Psychosocial issues in spinal cord injury: a review. Spinal Cord, 50(5), 382-389. DOI:10.1038/sc.2011.182

9. 9. Dijkers, M. (1997). Quality of life after spinal cord injury: a meta analysis of the effects of disablement components. Spinal Cord, 35(12), 829-840. DOI:10.1038/sj.sc.3100571
10. 10. Khan, K. M., Thompson, A. M., Blair, S. N., Sallis, J. F., Powell, K. E., Bull, F. C., & Bauman, A. E. (2012). Sport and exercise as contributors to the health of nations. The Lancet, 380(9836), 59-64. DOI:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60865-4
11. 11. Martin Ginis, K. A., & Hicks, A. L. (2007). Considerations for the development of a physical activity guide for Canadians with physical disabilities. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism, 32(S2E), S135-S147. DOI:10.1139/H07-108
12. 12. Rimmer, J. H., Braddock, D., & Pitetti, K. H. (1996). Research on physical activity and disability: an emerging national priority. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 28(11), 1366-1372. DOI:10.1097/00005768-199611000-00004
13. 13. Caspersen, C. J., Powell, K. E., & Christenson, G. M. (1985). Physical activity, exercise, and physical fitness: definitions and distinctions for health-related research. Public Health Reports, 100(2), 126-131.
14. 14. Gross-Hemmi, M. H., Post, M. W. M., Bienert, S., Chamberlain, J. D., Hug, K., Jordan, X., … Thyrian, C. (2019). Participation in people living with spinal cord injury in Switzerland: Degree and associated factors. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 100(10), 1894-1906. DOI:10.1016/j.apmr.2019.03.018
15. 15. Ahuja, C. S., Schroeder, G. D., Vaccaro, A. R., & Fehlings, M. G. (2017). Spinal cord injury—what are the controversies? Journal of Orthopaedic Trauma, 31, S7-S13. DOI:10.1097/BOT.0000000000000943
16. 16. Sheerin, F. (2004). Spinal cord injury: anatomy and physiology of the spinal cord. Emergency Nurse, 12(8), 30-36. DOI:10.7748/en2004.12.12.8.30.c1178
17. 17. Tarulli, A. W. (2015). Disorders of the cauda equina. Contınuum: Lifelong Learning in Neurology, 21(1), 146-158. DOI:10.1212/01.CON.0000461090.09736.45
18. 18. Kang, Y., Ding, H., Zhou, H., Wei, Z., Liu, L., Pan, D., & Feng, S. (2018). Epidemiology of worldwide spinal cord injury: a literature review. Journal of Neurorestoratology, 6(1), 1-9. DOI:10.2147/JN.S143236
19. 19. Chen, Y., Tang, Y., Vogel, L. C., & DeVivo, M. J. (2013). Causes of spinal cord injury. Topics in Spinal Cord Injury Rehabilitation, 19(1), 1-8. DOI:10.1310/sci1901-1
20. 20. Chen, Y., Tang, Y., Allen, V., & DeVivo, M. J. (2016). Fall-induced spinal cord injury: External causes and implications for prevention. The Journal of Spinal Cord Medicine, 39(1), 24-31. DOI:10.1179/2045772315Y.0000000007
21. 21. New, P. W., Cripps, R. A., & Bonne Lee, B. (2014). Global maps of non-traumatic spinal cord injury epidemiology: towards a living data repository. Spinal Cord, 52(2), 97-109. DOI:10.1038/sc.2012.165
22. 22. Hasler, R. M., Exadaktylos, A. K., Bouamra, O., Benneker, L. M., Clancy, M., Sieber, R., ... & Lecky, F. (2012). Epidemiology and predictors of cervical spine injury in adult major trauma patients: a multicenter cohort study. Journal of Trauma and Acute Care Surgery, 72(4), 975-981. DOI:10.1097/TA.0b013e31823f5e8e
23. 23. Sekhon, L. H. S., & Fehlings, M. G. (2001). Epidemiology, demographics, and pathophysiology of acute spinal cord injury. Spine, 26(24S), S2-S12. DOI:10.1097/00007632-200112151-00002
24. 24. Ahuja, C. S., Wilson, J. R., Nori, S., Kotter, M., Druschel, C., Curt, A., & Fehlings, M. G. (2017). Traumatic spinal cord injury. Nature Reviews Disease Primers, 3(1), 1-21. DOI:10.1038/nrdp.2017.18
25. 25. Guha, A. B., & Tator, C. H. (1988). Acute cardiovascular effects of experimental spinal cord injury. Journal of Trauma and Acute Care Surgery, 28(4), 481-490. DOI:10.1097/00005373-198804000-00011
26. 26. Erhan, B. (2015). Updates in ASIA Examination: Definitions. Türkiye Fiz Tıp ve Rehabil Derg, 61 (Supp. 1), S4-S5. DOI:10.5152/tftrd.2015.89804
27. 27. Divi, S. N., Schroeder, G. D., Mangan, J. J., Tadley, M., Ramey, W. L., Badhiwala, J. H., ... & Vaccaro, A. R. (2019). Management of acute traumatic central cord syndrome: a narrative review. Global Spine Journal, 9(1_suppl), 89S-97S. DOI:10.1177/2192568219830943
28. 28. Chen, J., Prasanna, K., & Tan, Y. L. (2022). The ambulatory outcomes of traumatic cauda equina syndrome and conus medullaris syndrome: a systematic review. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 103(12), e204. DOI:10.1016/j.apmr.2022.08.041
29. 29. Spector, L. R., Madigan, L., Rhyne, A., Darden, B., & Kim, D. (2008). Cauda equina syndrome. Journal of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, 16(8), 471-479. DOI:10.5435/00124635-200808000-00006
30. 30. Hagen, E. M. (2015). Acute complications of spinal cord injuries. World Journal of Orthopedics, 6(1), 17-23. DOI:10.5312/wjo.v6.i1.17
31. 31. Sezer, N., Akkuş, S., & Uğurlu, F. G. (2015). Chronic complications of spinal cord injury. World Journal of Orthopedics, 6(1), 24-33. DOI:10.5312/wjo.v6.i1.24
32. 32. Jacobs, P. L., & Nash, M. S. (2004). Exercise recommendations for individuals with spinal cord injury. Sports Medicine, 34(11), 727-751. DOI:10.2165/00007256-200434110-00003
33. 33. Tasiemski, T., Kennedy, P., Gardner, B. P., & Taylor, N. (2005). The association of sports and physical recreation with life satisfaction in a community sample of people with spinal cord injuries. NeuroRehabilitation, 20(4), 253-265. DOI:10.3233/NRE-2005-20403
34. 34. Tasiemski, T., Kennedy, P., Gardner, B. P., & Blaikley, R. A. (2004). Athletic identity and sports participation in people with spinal cord injury. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 21(4), 364–378. DOI:10.1123/apaq.21.4.364
35. 35. Lox, C. L., Ginis, K. A. M., Gainforth, H. L., & Petruzzello, S. J. (2019). The psychology of exercise: Integrating, theory and practice (5th ed.). Routledge.
36. 36. Post, M. W., Van Dijk, A. J., Van Asbeck, F. W., & Schrijvers, A. J. (1998). Life satisfaction of persons with spinal cord injury compared to a population group. Scandinavian Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine, 30(1), 23-30. DOI:10.1080/003655098444282
37. 37. Martin Ginis, K. A., Jetha, A., Mack, D. E., & Hetz, S. (2010). Physical activity and subjective well-being among people with spinal cord injury: a meta-analysis. Spinal Cord, 48, 65-72. DOI:10.1038/sc.2009.87
38. 38. Hanson, C. S., Nabavi, D., & Yuen, H. K. (2001). The effect of sports on level of community integration as reported by persons with spinal cord injury. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 55(3), 332-338. DOI:10.5014/ajot.55.3.332
39. 39. Hettinga, D. M., & Andrews, B. J. (2007). The feasibility of functional electrical stimulation indoor rowing for high-energy training and sport. Neuromodulation, 10(3), 291-297. DOI:10.1111/j.1525-1403.2007.00117.x
40. 40. Ginis, K. A. M., Jörgensen, S., & Stapleton, J. (2012). Exercise and sport for persons with spinal cord injury. PM&R, 4(11), 894-900. DOI:10.1016/j.pmrj.2012.08.006
41. 41. Scelza, W. M., Kalpakjian, C. Z., Zemper, E. D., & Tate, D. G. (2005). Perceived barriers to exercise in people with spinal cord injury. American Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, 84(8), 576-583. DOI:10.1097/01.phm.0000171172.96290.67
42. 42. Vermaak, C., Ferreira, S., Terblanche, E., & Derman, W. (2022). Physical activity promotion in persons with spinal cord injuries: Barriers and facilitators in low-resource communities. African Journal of Disability, 11(1), 988. DOI:10.4102/ajod.v11i0.988
43. 43. Kehn, M., & Kroll, T. (2009). Staying physically active after spinal cord injury: a qualitative exploration of barriers and facilitators to exercise participation. BMC Public Health, 9(1), 1-11.
44. 44. Williams, T. L., Smith, B., & Papathomas, A. (2014). The barriers, benefits and facilitators of leisure time physical activity among people with spinal cord injury: a meta-synthesis of qualitative findings. Health Psychology Review, 8(4), 404-425. DOI:10.1080/17437199.2014.898406
45. 45. Stephens, C., Neil, R., & Smith, P. (2012). The perceived benefits and barriers of sport in spinal cord injured individuals: a qualitative study. Disability and Rehabilitation, 34(24), 2061-2070. DOI:10.3109/09638288.2012.669020
46. 46. Bauman, W. A., & Spungen, A. M. (2008). Coronary heart disease in individuals with spinal cord injury: assessment of risk factors. Spinal Cord, 46(7), 466-476. DOI:10.1038/sj.sc.3102161
47. 47. Fernhall, B., Heffernan, K., Jae, S. Y., & Hedrick, B. (2008). Health implications of physical activity in individuals with spinal cord injury: a literature review. Journal of Health and Human Services Administration, 30(4), 468-502.
48. 48. Yekutiel, M., Brooks, M. E., Ohry, A., Yarom, J., & Carel, R. (1989). The prevalence of hypertension, ischaemic heart disease and diabetes in traumatic spinal cord injured patients and amputees. Spinal Cord, 27(1), 58-62. DOI:10.1038/sc.1989.9
49. 49. Bauman, W. A., Adkins, R. H., Spungen, A. M., Kemp, B. J., & Waters, R. L. (1998). The effect of residual neurological deficit on serum lipoproteins in individuals with chronic spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord, 36(1), 13-17. DOI:10.1038/sj.sc.3100513
50. 50. Bauman, W. A., Adkins, R. H., Spungen, A. M., & Waters, R. L. (1999). The effect of residual neurological deficit on oral glucose tolerance in persons with chronic spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord, 37(11), 765-771. DOI:10.1038/sj.sc.3100893
51. 51. Hetz, S. P., Latimer, A. E., Buchholz, A. C., Ginis, K. A. M., & SHAPE-SCI Research Group. (2009). Increased participation in activities of daily living is associated with lower cholesterol levels in people with spinal cord injury. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 90(10), 1755-1759. DOI:10.1016/j.apmr.2009.04.021
52. 52. LaVela, S. L., Weaver, F. M., Goldstein, B., Chen, K., Miskevics, S., Rajan, S., & Gater, D. R. (2006). Diabetes mellitus in individuals with spinal cord injury or disorder. The Journal of Spinal Cord Medicine, 29(4), 387-395. DOI:10.1080/10790268.2006.11753887
53. 53. Warburton, D. E. R., Nicol, C. W., & Bredin, S. S. D. (2006). Health benefits of physical activity: the evidence. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 174(6), 801–809. DOI:10.1503/cmaj.051351
54. 54. Washburn, R. A., & Figoni, S. F. (1999). High density lipoprotein cholesterol in individuals with spinal cord injury: the potential role of physical activity. Spinal Cord, 37(10), 685-695. DOI:10.1038/sj.sc.3100917
55. 55. Raymond, J., Harmer, A. R., Temesi, J., & Van Kemenade, C. (2010). Glucose tolerance and physical activity level in people with spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord, 48(8), 591-596. DOI:10.1038/sc.2009.180
56. 56. Manns, P. J., McCubbin, J. A., & Williams, D. P. (2005). Fitness, inflammation, and the metabolic syndrome in men with paraplegia. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 86(6), 1176-1181. DOI:10.1016/j.apmr.2004.11.020
57. 57. Buchholz, A. C., Martin Ginis, K. A., Bray, S. R., Craven, B. C., Hicks, A. L., Hayes, K. C., ... & Wolfe, D. L. (2009). Greater daily leisure time physical activity is associated with lower chronic disease risk in adults with spinal cord injury. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism, 34(4), 640-647. DOI:10.1139/H09-050
58. 58. Hicks, A. L., Martin Ginis, K. A., Pelletier, C. A., Ditor, D. S., Foulon, B., & Wolfe, D. L. (2011). The effects of exercise training on physical capacity, strength, body composition and functional performance among adults with spinal cord injury: a systematic review. Spinal Cord, 49(11), 1103-1127. DOI:10.1038/sc.2011.62
59. 59. Pacy, P. J., Hesp, R., Halliday, D. A., Katz, D., Cameron, G., & Reeve, J. (1988). Muscle and bone in paraplegic patients, and the effect of functional electrical stimulation. Clinical Science, 75(5), 481-487. DOI:10.1042/cs0750481
60. 60. Hjeltnes, N., Aksnes, A. K., Birkeland, K. I., Johansen, J., Lannem, A., & Wallberg-Henriksson, H. (1997). Improved body composition after 8 wk of electrically stimulated leg cycling in tetraplegic patients. American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology, 273(3), R1072-R1079. DOI:10.1152/ajpregu.1997.273.3.R1072
61. 61. Hicks, A. L., & Ginis, K. A. (2008). Treadmill training after spinal cord injury: it's not just about the walking. Journal of Rehabilitation Research & Development, 45(2), 241-248. DOI:10.1682/JRRD.2007.02.0022
62. 62. Inukai, Y., Takahashi, K., Wang, D. H., & Kira, S. (2006). Assessment of total and segmental body composition in spinal cord-injured athletes in okayama prefecture of Japan. Acta Medica Okayama, 60(2), 99-106. DOI:10.18926/AMO/30736
63. 63. Sutton, L., Wallace, J., Goosey-Tolfrey, V., Scott, M., & Reilly, T. (2009). Body composition of female wheelchair athletes. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 30(4), 259-265. DOI:10.1055/s-0028-1105941
64. 64. Mojtahedi, M. C., Valentine, R. J., Arngrímsson, S. A., Wilund, K. R., & Evans, E. M. (2007). The association between regional body composition and metabolic outcomes in athletes with Spinal Cord Injury. Spinal Cord, 46(3), 192-197. doi:10.1038/sj.sc.3102076
65. 65. Dallmeijer, A. J., Hopman, M. T., & van der Woude, L. H. (1997). Lipid, lipoprotein, and apolipoprotein profiles in active and sedentary men with tetraplegia. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 78(11), 1173-1176. DOI:10.1016/S0003-9993(97)90327-0
66. 66. Ginis, K. A. M., & Hicks, A. L. (2005). Exercise research issues in the spinal cord injured population. Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews, 33(1), 49-53.