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Theoretical Potentials and Utilization Capacities of Afghanistan’s Renewable Energy Resource

Year 2019, Volume: 5 Issue: 1, 157 - 186, 30.05.2019
https://doi.org/10.28979/comufbed.541371

Abstract

Afghanistan
is one of the countries where its population has the lowest access to
electricity in the world although the studies show that it is rich in both
significant renewable energy potential and conventional energy reserves. Since
Afghanistan has adequate natural and geographical conditions, it can benefit
significantly from renewable energy resources such as hydro, solar, geothermal,
biomass, wind and biomass. Even though Afghanistan has enough areas for
utilization of alternative resources, most of the infrastructures (particularly
national grids) were destroyed during the last decades because of war and
instability. Therefore, the majority of electricity demands are imported from
central Asian countries and Iran. This cause higher cost for energy, and other
problems as well. According to public sector organizations and departments
under leadership of the Ministry of Energy and Water of the country, although Afghanistan
does not have any network system for renewable energy excluding hydropower
system, does not have any network system, so many projects have been done in
this regard. From the theoretical point of view, utilization of renewable
energy in Afghanistan can play a very important role (especially in the rural
areas where majority of Afghan Nation live there) not only to supply
sustainable energy for its population but also it contributes for sustainable
economic development. The main purpose of this study is to attempt to compile,
examine and discuss the theoretical potential, current and future use
capacities of renewable energy sources in Afghanistan by considering other
studies.

References

  • Ahmadzai S., McKinna A., 2018. Afganistan electrical energy and trans-boundary water systems analysis: Challenges and opportunities, Energy Repots, 4: 435-469.
  • Alamyar K.M., 2014. Renewable Energy for Sustainable Development Economic, Policy Directorate Ministry of Economy. 15 Mart 2019, https://ecomod.net/system/files/ECO paper.pdf https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007%2F978-3-319-92288-1
  • Anonim, 2013. Afghanistan Rural Renewable Energy Policy, Ministry of Energy and Water, Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and Development, Afghanistan. 15 Mart 2019, http://www.red-mew.gov.af/
  • Anonim, 2014a. Renewable Energy Development, Capacity Development Technical Assistance (CDTA), Afghanistan. 15 Mart 2019, https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2F978-3-319-60621-7.pdf
  • Anonim, 2014b. 15 Mart 2019, https://wadsam.com/afghan-business-news/promoting-renewable-energy-in-afghanistan/
  • Anonim, 2015. Work for Human Development, UNDP Human Development Report 2015. 15 Mart 2019, http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/2015_human_development_report.pdf
  • Anonim, 2016. Afghanistan Energy Sector. 15 Mart 2019, https://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/energy/se/pp/eneff/7th_IFESD_Baku_Oct.2016/ESCAP_Elec_CIS/1_W.Aria_AVG.pdf (and see, CSO, Economy Statistics: Mining and Energy. Retrieved from Central Statistics Organization (CSO): Afghanistan Provinical Profile, April 2015, http://cso.gov.af/en
  • Anonim, 2017a. Afganistan Coğrafyası. 27 Mart 2019. https://ipfs.io/ipfs/QmT5NvUtoM5nWFfrQdVrFtvGfKFmG7AHE8P34isapyhCxX/wiki/Afganistan_co%C4%9Frafyas%C4%B1.html
  • Anonim, 2017b. Afganistan Ülke Raporu. T.C. Kabil Büyükelçiliği Ticaret Müşavirliği 2017. 27 Mart 2019. https://www.kutso.org.tr/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/Afganistan.pdf
  • Anonim, 2017c. Institional Development for Energy in Afghanistan (IDEA) programme Enabling Photovoltaic (PV) Afghanistan, On behalf of the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ). 15 Mart 2019, https://www.solarwirtschaft.de/fileadmin/user_upload/report_enabling_pv_afg.pdf
  • Anonim, 2017d. 15 Mart 2019, http://www.af.undp.org/content/afghanistan/en/home/presscenter/IntheNews/renewable-energy-in-afghanistan-atn.html
  • Anonim, 2017e. Ülke Profilleri: Afganistan. 27 Mart 2019. https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/ulke-profilleri/afganistan/901494
  • Anonim, 2018a. Afghanistan-Striving for 100% Renewable Energy: 15 Mart 2019 http://www.go100percent.org/cms/index.php?id=92&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=435&cHash=e8141c9b83d0b2f847fc5168898d5e97
  • Anonim, 2018b. Report: Afghanistan Renewable Energy Development Issues and Options: 15 Mart 2019, https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/30270
  • Anonim, 2018c. Human Development Index and its components, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Human Development Reports. Table 1. 15 Mart 2019, http://hdr.undp.org/en/composite/HDI
  • Anonim, 2019a. Coğrafya Dünyası. 27 Mart 2019. http://www.cografya.gen.tr/siyasi/devletler/afganistan.htm
  • Anonim, 2019b. The World Bank in Afganistan. 28 Mart 2019. http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/afghanistan
  • Anonim, 2019c. Ministry of Mines and Petroleum. 28 Mart 2019. http://mom.gov.af/en
  • Anonim, 2019d. The World Bank, Data, Afhganistan. 28 Mart 2019. https://data.worldbank.org/country/afghanistan
  • Anonim, 2019e. The World Bank: Projects & Operations. 28 Mart 2019. http://projects.worldbank.org/search?lang=en&searchTerm=&countrycode_exact=AF
  • Anonim, 2019f. Dünya Nüfusu: Afganistan Nüfusu. 29 Mart 2019. https://www.nufusu.com/ulke/afganistan-nufusu
  • Anonim, 2019g. AEIC, Afghan Energy Infoprmation Center, Geothermal Potential in the Structural Domain of the HinduKush in Afghanistan. 15 Mart 2019, http://aeic.af/en/energy_source/3
  • Anonim, 2019h. Afghanistan Resource Maps. NREL, the US National Renewable Energy Laboratory. 15 Mart 2019, https://www.nrel.gov/international/ra_afghanistan.html
  • Ashraf A.R., 2009. Energy Sector Afghanistan: Importance of Renewable Energy for Afghanistan, Renewabl Energy for Sustainable Development; International Conference in Dushanba (Tajikistan): 15 mart 2019, https://carnegieendowment.org/files/Presentation_-%20Ashraf.pdf
  • Elliott D., 2016. South Asia Regional Initiative for Energy Cooperation and Development (SARI-Energy),Wind Resource Assessment and Mapping for Afghanistan and Pakistan. 15 Mart 2019. https://www.nrel.gov/international/pdfs/afg_pak_wind_june07.pdf and https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADO338.pdf
  • Ershad A.M., 2017. Institutional and Policy Assessment of Renewable Energy Sector in Afghanistan 15 Mart 2019. http://downloads.hindawi.com/journals/jre/2017/5723152.pdf
  • Fahmi A., Upham, P., 2017. The renewable energy sector in Afganistan: Policy and potential, Wiley Interdisciplinary Rewievs: Energy and Environment,WIREs, Vol. 7, Issue 2, pp. 1-9
  • Ludin G.A., Amin M.A., Aminzay A., Senjyu T., 2017a. Theoretical Potential and Utilization of Renewable Energy in Afghanistan, AIMS Energy, Vol. 5, pp1-19. 15 Mart 2019, http://www.aimspress.com/article/10.3934/energy.2017.1.1. And ADB (2013) Power sector master plan, Technical Assistance Consultants Report. Islamic Republic of Afghanistan: Project Number 43497. 04 Nisan 2019. https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/project-document/76570/43497-012-afg-tacr.pdf
  • Ludin G.A., Matayoshi H., Danish M.S.S., Yona A., Senjyu T., 2017b. Hybrid PV/Wind/Diesel Based Distributed Generation for an Off-Grid Rural Village in Afghanistan. Journal of Energy and Power Engineering, Vol. 11, pp. 85-94.
  • Milbrandt A., Overend R., 2011. Assessment of Biomass Resources in Afghanistan, National Reneable Energy Laboratory (NREL). 15 Mart 2019. https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy11osti/49358.pdf
  • Musleh A.J., 2016. Renewable Energy Department, SAARC Work shop on Application of on-grid Biogass Technology, Ministry of Energy and Water, Kabul Afghanistan.15 Mart 2019. http://www.saarcenergy.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/ Afghanistan%20presentation.pdf
  • Nasrati A.A., 2015. Sustainable Energy for All Afghanistan, SE4ALL Consultation Workshop. 15 Mart 2019. https://d2oc0ihd6a5bt.cloudfront.net/wp-content/uploads/sites/837/2015/06/Ahmad-Abdullah-Nasrati_Afghanistan.pdf
  • Saba D.S., Najaf M.E., Musazai A.M., ve ark., 2004. Geothermal Energy in Afghanistan, Prospects and Potential. New York, USA. & Afghanistan Center for Policy and Development Studies, New York University Kabul, Afghanistan
  • Samadi A.R., 2011. Energy Consumption and Available Energy Resources in Afghanistan,Da Afghanistan Breshna Sherkat. 19 Nisan 2019. https://www.usea.org/sites/default/files/event-file/522/Afghan_Power_ Sector_Briefing_June_2011.pdf
  • Sherzai A., 2017. Energy Experts of the Future: Afganistan. UNDP. 15 Mart 2019, http://www.af.undp.org/content/afghanistan/en/home/ourwork/environmentandenergy/successstories/energy-experts-of-the-future.html
  • Snallen W.B., Schravel A., 2004. Working with farmers, 15 Mart 2019, http://www.newatereducation.nl/file.php/1/HowToTeach/AlterraRapport1096-1.pdf

Afganistan’ın Yenilenebilir Enerji Kaynaklarının Teorik Potansiyelleri ve Kullanım Kapasiteleri

Year 2019, Volume: 5 Issue: 1, 157 - 186, 30.05.2019
https://doi.org/10.28979/comufbed.541371

Abstract

Afganistan halkı dünya ölçeğinde en
düşük elektrik kullanım oranına sahip olmasına rağmen yapılan çalışmalar, bu
ülke
nin hem önemli yenilenebilir enerji
potansiyeli hem de geleneksel enerji rezervleri bakımından oldukça zengin
olduğunu göstermektedir. Afganistan, doğal ve coğrafi olarak güneş, rüzgar,
hidro, jeotermal ve biyokütle gibi yenilenebilir enerji kaynakları bakımından
uygun coğrafi konumda olduğu için çok önemli bir ölçüde bu kaynaklardan
faydalanabilir potansiyele sahiptir. Ayrıca, alternatif enerji kaynakların
kullanımı için yeterli ve uygun arazilere sahip bir ülkedir. Tüm bunlara
rağmen, altyapıların çoğu özellikle ulusal şebekeler, son birkaç on yıl içinde ülkedeki
savaş ve istikrarsızlık sırasında tahrip edilmiştir. Bu nedenle, Afganistan
elektrik ihtiyacını çoğunlukla Türkmenistan, Özbekistan, Tacikistan ve İran
gibi komşu ülkelerden ithal etmektedir. Afganistan’daki Enerji ve Su
Bakanlığı’nın
     (ESB) liderliği altında elektrik üretimi
ile ilgili çalışmakta olan şubeler ve kamu sektörlerine göre, ülkede
hidroelektrik sistemi hariç, yenilenebilir enerji kaynakları için şebeke
ölçeğinde bir sistem bulunmamasına rağmen, bu kaynakla
rla ilgili birçok proje çalışması
yapılmaktadır.
Teorik açıdan, Afganistan'da
yenilenebilir enerjinin kullanımı, çoğunlukla kırsal bölgelerde yaşa
yan  Afgan halkı için
sadece sürdürülebilir bir enerjinin sağlanmasına değil,
ayrıca
ülkede sürdürülebilir ekonomik kalkınma
ya
katkı
sağlayacaktır. Bu çalışmanın temel amacı diğer
kaynaklardan
da faydalanarak Afganistan’daki
yenilenebilir enerji kaynakların
ın
teorik potansiyel
lerini, mevcut ve gelecekteki kullanım
kapasite
lerini derleyerek, irdelemeye ve tartışmaya çalışmaktır. 

References

  • Ahmadzai S., McKinna A., 2018. Afganistan electrical energy and trans-boundary water systems analysis: Challenges and opportunities, Energy Repots, 4: 435-469.
  • Alamyar K.M., 2014. Renewable Energy for Sustainable Development Economic, Policy Directorate Ministry of Economy. 15 Mart 2019, https://ecomod.net/system/files/ECO paper.pdf https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007%2F978-3-319-92288-1
  • Anonim, 2013. Afghanistan Rural Renewable Energy Policy, Ministry of Energy and Water, Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and Development, Afghanistan. 15 Mart 2019, http://www.red-mew.gov.af/
  • Anonim, 2014a. Renewable Energy Development, Capacity Development Technical Assistance (CDTA), Afghanistan. 15 Mart 2019, https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2F978-3-319-60621-7.pdf
  • Anonim, 2014b. 15 Mart 2019, https://wadsam.com/afghan-business-news/promoting-renewable-energy-in-afghanistan/
  • Anonim, 2015. Work for Human Development, UNDP Human Development Report 2015. 15 Mart 2019, http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/2015_human_development_report.pdf
  • Anonim, 2016. Afghanistan Energy Sector. 15 Mart 2019, https://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/energy/se/pp/eneff/7th_IFESD_Baku_Oct.2016/ESCAP_Elec_CIS/1_W.Aria_AVG.pdf (and see, CSO, Economy Statistics: Mining and Energy. Retrieved from Central Statistics Organization (CSO): Afghanistan Provinical Profile, April 2015, http://cso.gov.af/en
  • Anonim, 2017a. Afganistan Coğrafyası. 27 Mart 2019. https://ipfs.io/ipfs/QmT5NvUtoM5nWFfrQdVrFtvGfKFmG7AHE8P34isapyhCxX/wiki/Afganistan_co%C4%9Frafyas%C4%B1.html
  • Anonim, 2017b. Afganistan Ülke Raporu. T.C. Kabil Büyükelçiliği Ticaret Müşavirliği 2017. 27 Mart 2019. https://www.kutso.org.tr/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/Afganistan.pdf
  • Anonim, 2017c. Institional Development for Energy in Afghanistan (IDEA) programme Enabling Photovoltaic (PV) Afghanistan, On behalf of the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ). 15 Mart 2019, https://www.solarwirtschaft.de/fileadmin/user_upload/report_enabling_pv_afg.pdf
  • Anonim, 2017d. 15 Mart 2019, http://www.af.undp.org/content/afghanistan/en/home/presscenter/IntheNews/renewable-energy-in-afghanistan-atn.html
  • Anonim, 2017e. Ülke Profilleri: Afganistan. 27 Mart 2019. https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/ulke-profilleri/afganistan/901494
  • Anonim, 2018a. Afghanistan-Striving for 100% Renewable Energy: 15 Mart 2019 http://www.go100percent.org/cms/index.php?id=92&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=435&cHash=e8141c9b83d0b2f847fc5168898d5e97
  • Anonim, 2018b. Report: Afghanistan Renewable Energy Development Issues and Options: 15 Mart 2019, https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/30270
  • Anonim, 2018c. Human Development Index and its components, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Human Development Reports. Table 1. 15 Mart 2019, http://hdr.undp.org/en/composite/HDI
  • Anonim, 2019a. Coğrafya Dünyası. 27 Mart 2019. http://www.cografya.gen.tr/siyasi/devletler/afganistan.htm
  • Anonim, 2019b. The World Bank in Afganistan. 28 Mart 2019. http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/afghanistan
  • Anonim, 2019c. Ministry of Mines and Petroleum. 28 Mart 2019. http://mom.gov.af/en
  • Anonim, 2019d. The World Bank, Data, Afhganistan. 28 Mart 2019. https://data.worldbank.org/country/afghanistan
  • Anonim, 2019e. The World Bank: Projects & Operations. 28 Mart 2019. http://projects.worldbank.org/search?lang=en&searchTerm=&countrycode_exact=AF
  • Anonim, 2019f. Dünya Nüfusu: Afganistan Nüfusu. 29 Mart 2019. https://www.nufusu.com/ulke/afganistan-nufusu
  • Anonim, 2019g. AEIC, Afghan Energy Infoprmation Center, Geothermal Potential in the Structural Domain of the HinduKush in Afghanistan. 15 Mart 2019, http://aeic.af/en/energy_source/3
  • Anonim, 2019h. Afghanistan Resource Maps. NREL, the US National Renewable Energy Laboratory. 15 Mart 2019, https://www.nrel.gov/international/ra_afghanistan.html
  • Ashraf A.R., 2009. Energy Sector Afghanistan: Importance of Renewable Energy for Afghanistan, Renewabl Energy for Sustainable Development; International Conference in Dushanba (Tajikistan): 15 mart 2019, https://carnegieendowment.org/files/Presentation_-%20Ashraf.pdf
  • Elliott D., 2016. South Asia Regional Initiative for Energy Cooperation and Development (SARI-Energy),Wind Resource Assessment and Mapping for Afghanistan and Pakistan. 15 Mart 2019. https://www.nrel.gov/international/pdfs/afg_pak_wind_june07.pdf and https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADO338.pdf
  • Ershad A.M., 2017. Institutional and Policy Assessment of Renewable Energy Sector in Afghanistan 15 Mart 2019. http://downloads.hindawi.com/journals/jre/2017/5723152.pdf
  • Fahmi A., Upham, P., 2017. The renewable energy sector in Afganistan: Policy and potential, Wiley Interdisciplinary Rewievs: Energy and Environment,WIREs, Vol. 7, Issue 2, pp. 1-9
  • Ludin G.A., Amin M.A., Aminzay A., Senjyu T., 2017a. Theoretical Potential and Utilization of Renewable Energy in Afghanistan, AIMS Energy, Vol. 5, pp1-19. 15 Mart 2019, http://www.aimspress.com/article/10.3934/energy.2017.1.1. And ADB (2013) Power sector master plan, Technical Assistance Consultants Report. Islamic Republic of Afghanistan: Project Number 43497. 04 Nisan 2019. https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/project-document/76570/43497-012-afg-tacr.pdf
  • Ludin G.A., Matayoshi H., Danish M.S.S., Yona A., Senjyu T., 2017b. Hybrid PV/Wind/Diesel Based Distributed Generation for an Off-Grid Rural Village in Afghanistan. Journal of Energy and Power Engineering, Vol. 11, pp. 85-94.
  • Milbrandt A., Overend R., 2011. Assessment of Biomass Resources in Afghanistan, National Reneable Energy Laboratory (NREL). 15 Mart 2019. https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy11osti/49358.pdf
  • Musleh A.J., 2016. Renewable Energy Department, SAARC Work shop on Application of on-grid Biogass Technology, Ministry of Energy and Water, Kabul Afghanistan.15 Mart 2019. http://www.saarcenergy.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/ Afghanistan%20presentation.pdf
  • Nasrati A.A., 2015. Sustainable Energy for All Afghanistan, SE4ALL Consultation Workshop. 15 Mart 2019. https://d2oc0ihd6a5bt.cloudfront.net/wp-content/uploads/sites/837/2015/06/Ahmad-Abdullah-Nasrati_Afghanistan.pdf
  • Saba D.S., Najaf M.E., Musazai A.M., ve ark., 2004. Geothermal Energy in Afghanistan, Prospects and Potential. New York, USA. & Afghanistan Center for Policy and Development Studies, New York University Kabul, Afghanistan
  • Samadi A.R., 2011. Energy Consumption and Available Energy Resources in Afghanistan,Da Afghanistan Breshna Sherkat. 19 Nisan 2019. https://www.usea.org/sites/default/files/event-file/522/Afghan_Power_ Sector_Briefing_June_2011.pdf
  • Sherzai A., 2017. Energy Experts of the Future: Afganistan. UNDP. 15 Mart 2019, http://www.af.undp.org/content/afghanistan/en/home/ourwork/environmentandenergy/successstories/energy-experts-of-the-future.html
  • Snallen W.B., Schravel A., 2004. Working with farmers, 15 Mart 2019, http://www.newatereducation.nl/file.php/1/HowToTeach/AlterraRapport1096-1.pdf
There are 36 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language Turkish
Subjects Engineering
Journal Section Derleme Makale
Authors

Abdul Maroof Shirzad 0000-0002-5516-3881

İsmail Tarhan 0000-0001-6156-0827

Publication Date May 30, 2019
Acceptance Date April 15, 2019
Published in Issue Year 2019 Volume: 5 Issue: 1

Cite

APA Shirzad, A. M., & Tarhan, İ. (2019). Afganistan’ın Yenilenebilir Enerji Kaynaklarının Teorik Potansiyelleri ve Kullanım Kapasiteleri. Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi, 5(1), 157-186. https://doi.org/10.28979/comufbed.541371
AMA Shirzad AM, Tarhan İ. Afganistan’ın Yenilenebilir Enerji Kaynaklarının Teorik Potansiyelleri ve Kullanım Kapasiteleri. Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi. May 2019;5(1):157-186. doi:10.28979/comufbed.541371
Chicago Shirzad, Abdul Maroof, and İsmail Tarhan. “Afganistan’ın Yenilenebilir Enerji Kaynaklarının Teorik Potansiyelleri Ve Kullanım Kapasiteleri”. Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi 5, no. 1 (May 2019): 157-86. https://doi.org/10.28979/comufbed.541371.
EndNote Shirzad AM, Tarhan İ (May 1, 2019) Afganistan’ın Yenilenebilir Enerji Kaynaklarının Teorik Potansiyelleri ve Kullanım Kapasiteleri. Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi 5 1 157–186.
IEEE A. M. Shirzad and İ. Tarhan, “Afganistan’ın Yenilenebilir Enerji Kaynaklarının Teorik Potansiyelleri ve Kullanım Kapasiteleri”, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 157–186, 2019, doi: 10.28979/comufbed.541371.
ISNAD Shirzad, Abdul Maroof - Tarhan, İsmail. “Afganistan’ın Yenilenebilir Enerji Kaynaklarının Teorik Potansiyelleri Ve Kullanım Kapasiteleri”. Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi 5/1 (May 2019), 157-186. https://doi.org/10.28979/comufbed.541371.
JAMA Shirzad AM, Tarhan İ. Afganistan’ın Yenilenebilir Enerji Kaynaklarının Teorik Potansiyelleri ve Kullanım Kapasiteleri. Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi. 2019;5:157–186.
MLA Shirzad, Abdul Maroof and İsmail Tarhan. “Afganistan’ın Yenilenebilir Enerji Kaynaklarının Teorik Potansiyelleri Ve Kullanım Kapasiteleri”. Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi, vol. 5, no. 1, 2019, pp. 157-86, doi:10.28979/comufbed.541371.
Vancouver Shirzad AM, Tarhan İ. Afganistan’ın Yenilenebilir Enerji Kaynaklarının Teorik Potansiyelleri ve Kullanım Kapasiteleri. Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi. 2019;5(1):157-86.

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