Self-Handicapping and Self-Esteem Levels of Swimming Referees
Abstract
Purpose: The aim of this study is to examine the levels of self-handicapping and self-esteem among swimming referees registered within the Turkish Swimming Federation, to determine whether these levels differ according to selected demographic and refereeing-related variables, and to reveal the relationship between the two scale scores.
Method: The population of the study consisted of 3931 referees registered with and actively working in the Turkish Swimming Federation, and the sample consisted of 164 swimming referees randomly selected from the population. The Self-Handicapping Scale developed by Rhodewalt (2008) and adapted into Turkish by Akın (2012), and the Self-Esteem Scale developed by Rosenberg (1965) and adapted into Turkish by Tukuş (2010) were used to collect data. A personal information form was used for demographic data. Due to the non-normal distribution of the data, the Mann–Whitney U test was used for pairwise group comparisons, the Kruskal–Wallis H test for comparisons of more than two groups, and Spearman’s rho correlation analysis for examining the relationship between variables. Bonferroni correction was applied for multiple pairwise comparisons that were found to be significant.
Results: The findings showed no significant difference in self-handicapping and self-esteem scores according to gender and marital status. Self-handicapping scores showed a significant difference according to referee category and experience duration; in post hoc analyses, it was determined that only candidate referees had higher self-handicapping scores than regional referees. Self-esteem scores, on the other hand, differed significantly according to education level, referee category, experience duration, number of competitions officiated, and place of residence. Furthermore, a weak, negative, and significant correlation was found between self-handicapping and self-esteem.
Conclusion: The study findings indicate that self-handicapping and self-esteem in swimming referees are more related to occupational characteristics such as refereeing level, experience, and competition exposure than to basic demographic variables. Particularly in lower refereeing categories and among referees with more limited experience, a higher tendency towards self-handicapping and lower self-esteem was observed. These results suggest that professional development processes should be considered in understanding the psychological characteristics of swimming referees.
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References
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Details
Primary Language
English
Subjects
Sports Science and Exercise (Other)
Journal Section
Research Article
Authors
Publication Date
July 13, 2026
Submission Date
March 30, 2026
Acceptance Date
June 27, 2026
Published in Issue
Year 2026 Volume: 9 Number: 2026