Research Article

Self-Handicapping and Self-Esteem Levels of Swimming Referees

Volume: 9 Number: 2026 July 13, 2026
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Self-Handicapping and Self-Esteem Levels of Swimming Referees

Abstract

Purpose: The aim of this study is to examine the levels of self-handicapping and self-esteem among swimming referees registered within the Turkish Swimming Federation, to determine whether these levels differ according to selected demographic and refereeing-related variables, and to reveal the relationship between the two scale scores.

Method: The population of the study consisted of 3931 referees registered with and actively working in the Turkish Swimming Federation, and the sample consisted of 164 swimming referees randomly selected from the population. The Self-Handicapping Scale developed by Rhodewalt (2008) and adapted into Turkish by Akın (2012), and the Self-Esteem Scale developed by Rosenberg (1965) and adapted into Turkish by Tukuş (2010) were used to collect data. A personal information form was used for demographic data. Due to the non-normal distribution of the data, the Mann–Whitney U test was used for pairwise group comparisons, the Kruskal–Wallis H test for comparisons of more than two groups, and Spearman’s rho correlation analysis for examining the relationship between variables. Bonferroni correction was applied for multiple pairwise comparisons that were found to be significant.

Results: The findings showed no significant difference in self-handicapping and self-esteem scores according to gender and marital status. Self-handicapping scores showed a significant difference according to referee category and experience duration; in post hoc analyses, it was determined that only candidate referees had higher self-handicapping scores than regional referees. Self-esteem scores, on the other hand, differed significantly according to education level, referee category, experience duration, number of competitions officiated, and place of residence. Furthermore, a weak, negative, and significant correlation was found between self-handicapping and self-esteem.

Conclusion: The study findings indicate that self-handicapping and self-esteem in swimming referees are more related to occupational characteristics such as refereeing level, experience, and competition exposure than to basic demographic variables. Particularly in lower refereeing categories and among referees with more limited experience, a higher tendency towards self-handicapping and lower self-esteem was observed. These results suggest that professional development processes should be considered in understanding the psychological characteristics of swimming referees.

Keywords

Supporting Institution

None

Ethical Statement

The author declares that the research was conducted in accordance with the principles stated in the Declaration of Helsinki.

Thanks

The author thanks his students and colleagues, Sevcan TÜZÜN and Semra DOĞAN, for their invaluable contributions in data collection.

References

  1. Akın, A., Abacı, R., & Akın, Ü. (2011). Self-handicapping: A conceptual analysis. International Online Journal of Educational Sciences, 3(3), 1155–1168.
  2. Akın, A. (2012). Kendini sabotaj ölçeği: geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması. Education and Science, 37(164), 176-187.
  3. Avugos, S., MacMahon, C., Bar-Eli, M., & Raab, M. (2021). Inter-individual differences in sport refereeing: A review of theory and practice. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 55, 101926.
  4. Bloß, N., Schorer, J., Loffing, F., & Büsch, D. (2020). Physical load and referees’ decision-making in sports games: A scoping review. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 19(1), 149–157.
  5. Castagna, C., Abt, G., & D’Ottavio, S. (2007). Physiological aspects of soccer refereeing performance and training. Sports Medicine, 37(7), 625–646. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200737070-00006
  6. Castillo-Rodriguez, A., Rodríguez-Caparros, J. L., Figueiredo, A., Gonzalez-Fernandez, F. T., & Onetti-Onetti, W. (2023). Cause-effect: The relationship between role and experience with psychological and physical responses in the competition context in soccer referees. Journal of Human Kinetics, 89, 289–300. https://doi.org/10.5114/jhk/169174
  7. Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2007). Research methods in education. Routledge.
  8. Coudevylle, G. R., Gernigon, C., & Ginis, K. A. M. (2011). Self-esteem, self-confidence, anxiety and claimed self-handicapping: A mediational analysis. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 12(6), 670–675. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2011.05.008

Details

Primary Language

English

Subjects

Sports Science and Exercise (Other)

Journal Section

Research Article

Publication Date

July 13, 2026

Submission Date

March 30, 2026

Acceptance Date

June 27, 2026

Published in Issue

Year 2026 Volume: 9 Number: 2026

APA
Kamuk, Y. U. (2026). Self-Handicapping and Self-Esteem Levels of Swimming Referees. 9(2026), 459-480. https://izlik.org/JA35BT76XB
AMA
1.Kamuk YU. Self-Handicapping and Self-Esteem Levels of Swimming Referees. 2026;9(2026):459-480. https://izlik.org/JA35BT76XB
Chicago
Kamuk, Yetkin Utku. 2026. Self-Handicapping and Self-Esteem Levels of Swimming Referees. 9 (2026): 459-80. https://izlik.org/JA35BT76XB.
EndNote
Kamuk YU (July 1, 2026) Self-Handicapping and Self-Esteem Levels of Swimming Referees. 9 2026 459–480.
IEEE
[1]Y. U. Kamuk, “Self-Handicapping and Self-Esteem Levels of Swimming Referees”, vol. 9, no. 2026, pp. 459–480, July 2026, [Online]. Available: https://izlik.org/JA35BT76XB
ISNAD
Kamuk, Yetkin Utku. “Self-Handicapping and Self-Esteem Levels of Swimming Referees” 9/2026 (July 1, 2026): 459-480. https://izlik.org/JA35BT76XB.
JAMA
1.Kamuk YU. Self-Handicapping and Self-Esteem Levels of Swimming Referees. 2026;9:459–480.
MLA
Kamuk, Yetkin Utku. Self-Handicapping and Self-Esteem Levels of Swimming Referees. no. 2026, July 2026, pp. 459-80, https://izlik.org/JA35BT76XB.
Vancouver
1.Yetkin Utku Kamuk. Self-Handicapping and Self-Esteem Levels of Swimming Referees [Internet]. Vols. 9. 2026 Jul. 1;9(2026):459-80. Available from: https://izlik.org/JA35BT76XB

For the articles to be published in 2026 in the ÇOMÜ Journal of Sports Sciences, an international, peer-reviewed journal covering studies in the field of Sports Sciences, original research and review articles written in English within the scope of the journal will be accepted.

In this context, manuscripts for the 2026 publication period may be submitted until the end of November 2026.

Kind regards,

Editor
Prof. Dr. Hürmüz KOÇ