İZMİR’İN İŞGALİNDE İTALYA’NIN ROLÜ

Year 2023, Volume: 23 Issue: 46, 5 - 24, 21.07.2023

Fulvio Bertuccellı

Abstract

İtalya, 1911-1912 Trablusgarp Harbi’nin ardından Osmanlı meseleleriyle daha
yakından alakalı olmuştur. Londra Antlaşması’yla İtalya’nın Birinci Dünya Harbi’ne
katılması, Anadolu ve Doğu Akdeniz üzerinde bir İtalyan nüfuz alanı kurma hayalini
cesaretlendirmiştir. Bir İtalyan topluluğuna da ev sahipliği yapan İzmir liman şehri, St
Jean de Maurienne Antlaşması yoluyla İtalyan iddialarının Britanya ve Fransa tarafından
tanınmasını sağlamak için başarılı bir şekilde mücadele eden İtalyan diplomasisinin açık
hedefiydi. Bu makalenin amacı, özellikle 15 Mayıs 1919’da Yunanların liderliğinde İzmir’in
İtilaf Devletler’ce işgaliyle sonuçlanan ve İtalyanların Anadolu planlarının başarısızlığının
başlangıcı olan siyasi olaylara odaklanarak Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun parçalanmasında
İtalya’nın rolü hakkında güncellenmiş tarihsel bir tablo sunmaktır. Çalışmada İtalyan
diplomatik kaynaklardan yararlanarak hem İtalya yayılmacı projeleri kapsamında İzmir’in
yeri hem de İtalyan yöneticilerin işgal algıları değerlendirilecektir.

Keywords

İzmir/Smyrna, Birinci Dünya Harbi, Emperyalizm, İtalya, Doğu Akdeniz

THE ROLE OF ITALY IN THE OCCUPATION OF IZMIR

Abstract

This essay aims to offer an updated historical account of the Italian
involvement in the partition of the Ottoman Empire focusing specifically on the
events which led to the 15 May 1919 Greek-led interallied occupation of İzmir
and the beginning of the failure of the Italian claims in Anatolia. Through the
reading of the Italian diplomatic sources as well as existing historiography on
the subject, the essay attempts to evaluate the position of Izmir in the Italian
expansionist plans and to reconstruct the Italian leading cadre’s perception of
the occupation of the city.
After the end of the Italo-Turkish war of 1911-1912, Italy became more
directly involved in the Ottoman affairs. The Italian intervention in the Great
War following the signature of the London Pact encouraged the dream of
extending the country’s influence over Eastern Mediterranean and Anatolia.
However, the treaty was extremely vague as regards to Italian future territorial
gains. As the rumors about the Sykes-Picot Treaty reached Italian authorities,
a more incisive diplomatic action supporting Italian expansionism took place.
Moreover, between 1916 and 1917 emerged a broad movement of public
opinion, which included liberals, conservative as well as nationalist writers,
calling for a ‘minimum program’ of colonial claims in the Balkans, in Africa and
Anatolia as well. In this light the so called ‘Franchetti memorandum’, signed
by prominent intellectuals and civil servants, demanded the establishment of
a direct rule on all the port-cities in Southern and Western Anatolia, including
İzmir, which hosted a relevant Italian community. During the hard negotiations
led by the Minister of Foreign Affairs Sidney Sonnino at St. Jean de Maurienne
on 26th April 1917, Italy obtained the recognition of its claims on Antalya, Konya
and İzmir by Great Britain and France on the condition of Russian approval.
Significantly, after the October Revolution and Russian withdrawal from the
conflict and the end of the war, the Entente refused to recognize the Italian
claims. At the same time, the British plan to assign the administration of İzmir
to Greece, which struggled for the realization of the ‘Megali Idea’ (Great Idea),
provoked a deep resentment and the reorientation of Italian policy toward the
Ottomans. In other words, when it was clear that the Entente Powers would not
support its colonial claims in Anatolia, Italy started a more pro-Turkish policy
which aimed to counter the Greek claims on western Anatolia. The new Italian
Fulvio BERTUCCELLI
24
ÇTTAD, XXIII/46, (2023/Bahar)
attitude aimed to legitimize Italy as an ‘impartial’ power, rather than a colonial
one, willing to protect Muslims’ interests against the Greek ambitions. The
occupation of Antalya on 28th March 1919 without getting the approval of the
other Entente powers must be seen in the framework of this independent policy.
However, this Italian unilateral step, along with the controversies regarding the
future of Fiume/Rijeka, led to a downturn in the relation with the allies and
to the retirement of Italy from the Paris Peace Conference on 24th April 1919.
Retrospectively it is indeed clear that the Italian invasion of Antalya faced the
country with the danger of diplomatic isolation and had no other result than
that of speeding-up the British-backed Greek plan to gain the control of İzmir.
After the return of the Italian delegation to the Peace Conference, Italy had no
choice than to reluctantly endorse the decision to allow the Greek-led interallied
occupation of İzmir on 15th May 1919.
Although the Greek occupation of the city involved a loss of prestige
of Italy in the eyes of Ottoman public opinion, in the framework of the Greek-
Italian propaganda war the Italian authorities carefully documented the Greek
atrocities against the city’s Muslim population. However, the resignation of the
cabinet led by Vittorio Emanuele Orlando, which led to that of Sidney Sonnino
from the office of Minister Foreign Affairs, opened an even more difficult stage
in the relations between Italy and the other victorious powers. The aggressive
declarations by the new Minister of Foreign Affairs, Tommaso Tittoni, who
stated that Italy was going to follow an uncompromising policy provoked a harsh
reaction by the United States, Great Britain and France whose representatives
issued a memorandum which strongly condemned Italy’s unilateral attitude.
Faced once again with the concrete danger of international isolation, Tittoni,
reached an agreement with Greek Prime Minister Venizelos which contradicted
the policy Italy had followed so far. Even if the so-called Tittoni-Venizelos
agreement did not stop the ongoing propaganda activities against Greece, it
showed the inconsistency of the Italian colonial claims in Anatolia. In other
words, Italy remained posed between expansionist ambitions and the lack of
military and financial resources to realize them.

Keywords

Izmir/Smyrna, First World War, Imperialism, Italy, Eastern Mediterranean.

References

• DDI-V/7: Documenti Diplomatici Italiani, Quinta Serie, Volume 7, Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato, Roma, 1978.
• DDI-V/6: Documenti Diplomatici Italiani, Quinta Serie, Volume 6, Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato, Roma, 1988.
• DDI-VI/1: Documenti Diplomatici Italiani, Sesta Serie, Volume 1, Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato, Roma, 1955.
• DDI- VI/2: Documenti Diplomatici Italiani, Sesta Serie, Volume 2, Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato, Roma, 1980.
• DDI-VI/3: Documenti Diplomatici Italiani, Sesta Serie, Volume 3, Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato, Roma, 2017.
• DBFP-I/4: Documents on British Foreign Policy 1919-1939, (Eds. E. L. Woodward and R. Butler), Oxford, 1919.
• Agreement between France, Russia, Great Britain and Italy, signed at London, April 26, 1915, H.M. Stationery Off., London, 1920.
• Senato del Regno, Atti Parlamentari, Legıslatura XXIV — I Sessione 1913-19, Discussioni - Tornata Del 25 Gıugno 1919.
• AYDIN, Cemil, The Idea of Muslim World, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 2017.
• BERBER, Engin, Sancılı Yıllar-İzmir 1918-1922: Mütareke ve Yunan İşgali Döneminde İzmir Sancağı, Ayraç Yayınevi, Ankara, 1997.
• BEVIONE Giuseppe, L’Asia Minore e l’Italia, Fratelli Boccia Editori, Milano-Roma, b.t.y.
• CECINI Giovanni, Il Corpo di Spedizione Italiano in Anatolia (1919-1922), Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito Ufficio Storico, Roma, 2010.
• GRASSI, Fabio L., İtalya ve Türk Sorunu 1919-1923, Kamuoyu ve Dış Politika, Yapı Kredi Yayınları, İstanbul, 2010.
• MANTOUX, Paul, Les Deliberations du Conseil des Quatre, 24 mars - 28 juin, 1919, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris, 1955.
• MONZALI, Luciano, Il Colonialismo nella Politica Estera Italiana, Società Editrice Dante Alighieri, Roma 2017.
• PETRICIOLI, Marta, L’Italia in Asia Minore. Equilibrio Mediterraneo e Ambizioni Imperialiste alla Vigilia della Prima Guerra Mondiale, Sansoni, Firenze, 1983.
• SMITH, Michael L., Ionian Vision. Greece in Asia Minor (1919-1922), The Michigan University Press, Ann Arbor.
• WILCOX, Vanda, The Italian Empire and the Great War, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2021.
• BUZANSKI, Peter M., “The Interallied Investigation of the Greek Invasion of Smyrna, 1919.” The Historian 25, no. 3 (1963), ss.325-43.
• ÇELEBİ, Mevlüt, “Mütareke Döneminde Mustafa Kemal Paşa-Kont Sforza Görüşmesi”, Atatürk Araştırma Merkezi Dergisi, 15 / 45 (Kasım 1999), ss.791-800.
• _____________, “Millî Mücadele Döneminde Türk-İtalyan İlişkileri”, 90.Yılında Millî Mücadele Sempozyumları Bildiriler, (Haz. H. Aytuğ Tokur), Atatürk Araştırma Merkezi Yayını, Ankara, 2011, ss.169-194.
• ______________, “İtalyan Arşiv Belgelerinde İzmir’in İşgali”, XIV. Türk Tarih Kongresi, (9-13 Eylül 2002), Kongreye Sunulan Bildiriler, I. Cilt, TTK Yayını, Ankara 2006, ss.45-61.
• ______________, “Bir İtalyan Gazetecinin Kaleminden İzmir’in İşgali”, Çağdaş Türkiye Tarihi Araştırmaları Dergisi/Journal Of Modern Turkish History Studies XIX/ Özel Sayı: İzmir’in İşgali (2019), ss.131-154.
• FINEFROCK, Michael M., “Ataturk, Lloyd George and the Megali Idea: Cause and Consequence of the Greek Plan to Seize Constantinople from the Allies, June-August 1922”, The Journal of Modern History, 52, no. 1 (1980), ss.1047-1066.
• GRASSI, Fabio L., “Diplomazia Segreta Italo-Turca dopo la Prima Guerra Mondiale; Convergenze ed Equivoci (1919-1920)”, Clio, Anno XXXIX - n. 1 (gennaio-marzo 2003), ss.51-84.
• ________________, “Trablusgarp’tan Kurtuluş Savaşı’na İtalyan Politikasında İzmir”, Kuva-yı Milliye’nin 90. Yılında İzmir ve Batı Anadolu Uluslararası Sempozyum Bildirileri 6-8 Eylül 2009 I Cilt, (Haz. Oktay Gökdemir), İzmir, 2010, ss.94-106.
• _______________, “Dove si combatte: Anatolia”, Tra il Bosforo e l’Egeo. La Marina italiana e la fine dell’Impero ottomano 1919-1923, (Haz. Alessandro Vagnini), Ufficio Storico della Marina Militare, Roma, 2021, ss.71-164.
• IMPERATO, Federico, “L’Italia e gli accordi di San Giovanni di Moriana”, La Guerra di Cadorna 1915-1917 Atti del Convegno Trieste – Gorizia 2 - 4 Novembre 2016, (Haz. Pietro Neglie-Andrea Ungari), Ufficio Storico Sme, Roma, 2018, ss.383-399.
• MARCUZZI, Stefano, “A Machiavellian Ally? Italy and the Entente (1914-1918)”, Italy in the Era of the Great War,( Haz. V. Wilcox), Brill, Leiden-Boston, 2018, ss.99-121.
• MELCHIONNI, Maria Grazia. “Accordi Italo - Greci a Parigi (1919-1920)”, Rivista Di Studi Politici Internazionali, 48, no. 3 (191), (1981), ss.465–80.
• TOSCANO, Mario, “Gli Accordi di S. Giovanni di Moriana”, Annali di scienze politiche, Marzo 1936, Vol. 9, No. 1 (Marzo 1936), ss.21-50.
• YELLİCE, Gürhan, “Megali İdea mı Mare Nostrum mu? Mondros Mütarekesi’nden İzmir’in İşgaline İtalyan-Yunan İlişkileri ve Propaganda Savaşı, 1918-1919”, Tarih Okulu Dergisi (TOD) Journal of History School (JOHS), Ekim 2018, October 2018, Yıl 11, S. XXXVI, ss.177-228.