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Al2124 Alüminyum Alaşımının Frezeleme Performansı Üstüne Takım Kaplamasının Etkisi

Year 2019, Volume: 21 Issue: 63, 749 - 760, 20.09.2019
https://doi.org/10.21205/deufmd.2019216307

Abstract



Bu çalışmada, Al2124 alüminyum alaşımının frezelenmesi sırasında
çeşitli kaplamalı karbür kesici uçların ve kesme derinliğinin yüzey
pürüzlülüğü, takım aşınması, üst çapak genişliği ve frezeleme kuvvetleri gibi
bazı işleme kriterlerine etkisi araştırılmıştır. Frezeleme deneylerinde
fiziksel buhar biriktirme ile kaplanmış tek katlı TiCN, AlTiN, TiAlN ve iki
katlı TiCN + TiN, AlTiN + TiN uçlar kullanılmıştır. Deneysel sonuçlardan, tüm
kaplamalar için talaş derinliğinin artması ile serbest yüzey aşınmasının,
frezeleme kuvvetlerinin, yüzey pürüzlülüğünün ve üst çapak genişliğinin
arttığı sonucuna varılmıştır. Tüm kaplamalı uçlar için ana aşınma
mekanizmaları adhezif ve abrazif aşınmalar olarak bulunmuştur. Sonuç olarak,
iki katlı kaplamalı uçlar (TiCN + TiN ve AlTiN + TiN) ve TiCN kaplı uçlar
Al2124 alüminyum alaşımının frezelenmesinde AlTiN ve TiAlN kaplı uçlara göre
daha iyi işleme performansı sağlamıştır.



References

  • [1] Sukumaran, K., Ravikumar, K.K., Pillai, S.G.K., Rajan, T.P.D., Ravi, M., Pillai, R.M., Pai, B.C. 2008. Studies on Squeeze Casting of Al 2124 Alloy and 2124-10% SiCp Metal Matrix Composite, Materials Science and Engineering A, Cilt. 490, s. 235-241. DOI: 10.1016/j.msea.2008.01.054
  • [2] Shaterani, P., Zarei-Hanzaki, A., Fatemi-Varzaneh, S.M., Hassas-Irani, S.B. 2014. The Second Phase Particles and Mechanical Properties of 2124 Aluminum Alloy Processed by Accumulative Back Extrusion, Materials and Design, Cilt. 58, s. 535-542. DOI: 10.1016/j.matdes.2014.01.078
  • [3] Thamban, I., Abraham, B.C., Kurian, S. 2013. Machining Characteristics Analysis of 6061-T6 Aluminium Alloy with Diamond Coated and Uncoated Tungsten Carbide Tool, International Journal of Latest Research in Science and Technology, Cilt. 2, s. 553-557.
  • [4] Vannan, R.R.R.M., Moorthy, T.V., Hariharan, P., Prabhu, P. 2016. Effect of Physical Vapour Deposited Bi-Layer (AlCrN+TiAlN) Coating on High Speed Steel Single Point Cutting Tool, Materials and Manufacturing Processes, Cilt. 32, s. 373-376. DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2016.1176178.
  • [5] Mativenga, P.T., Abukhshim, N.A., Sheikh, M.A., Hon, B.K.K. 2006. An Investigation of Tool Chip Contact Phenomena in High-Speed Turning Using Coated Tools, Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part B: Journal of Engineering Manufacture, Cilt. 220, s. 657-667. DOI: 10.1243/09544054JEM351
  • [6] Luo, Q., Robinson, G., Pittman, M., Howarth, M., Sim, W.-M., Stalley, M.R., Leitner, H., Ebner, R., Caliskanoglu, D., Hovsepian, P.E. 2005. Performance of Nano-Structured Multilayer PVD Coating TiAlN/VN in Dry High Speed Milling of Aerospace Aluminium 7010-T7651, Surface & Coatings Technology, Cilt. 200, s. 123-127. DOI: 10.1016/j.surfcoat.2005.02.017
  • [7] Najiha, M.S., Rahman, M.M., Kadirgama, K. 2015. Experimental Investigation and Optimization of Minimum Quantity Lubrication for Machining of AA6061-T6, International Journal of Automotive and Mechanical Engineering, Cilt. 11, s. 2722-2737. DOI: 10.15282/ijame.11.2015.47.0228
  • [8] Iyappan, S.K., Ghosh, A. 2015. Comparison of Tribological Properties of MoS2 and Graphite-PTFE Coatings and its Impact on Machining of Aluminium by HSS End Mills, Materials and Manufacturing Processes, Cilt. 30, s. 912-920. DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2014.984212
  • [9] Wertheim, R. 2001. New Directions in Cutting Tool Materials and Machining Options.
  • [10] Dogra, M., Sharma, V.S., Sachdeva, A., Suri, N.M. 2012. Finish Hard Turning of Continuous and Interrupted Surfaces with Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN) and Coated Carbide Tools, Materials and Manufacturing Processes, Cilt. 27, s. 523-530. DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2011.593238
  • [11] Zheng, G., Zhao, J., Cheng, X., Xu, R., Zhao, G. 2016. Experimental Investigation on Sialon Ceramic Inserts for Ultra-High-Speed Milling of Inconel 718, Materials and Manufacturing Processes, Cilt. 31, s. 633-640. DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2015.1019090
  • [12] Thakur, A., Gangopadhyay, S., Mohanty, A. 2015. Investigation on Some Machinability Aspects of Inconel 825 during Dry Turning, Materials and Manufacturing Processes, Cilt. 30, s. 1026-1034. DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2014.984216
  • [13] Kong, X., Yang, L., Zhang, H., Zhou, K., Wang, Y. 2015. Cutting Performance and Coated Tool Wear Mechanisms in Laser-Assisted Milling K24 Nickel-Based Superalloy, International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Cilt. 77, s. 2151-2163. DOI: 10.1007/s00170-014-6606-9
  • [14] Mohanty, S., Gangopadhyay, S., Thakur, A. 2016. On Applicability of Multilayer Coated Tool in Dry Machining of Aerospace Grade Stainless Steel, Materials and Manufacturing Processes, Cilt. 31, s. 869-879. DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2015.1070413
  • [15] Abdullah, R.I.R., Redzuwan, B.I., Aziz, M.S.A., Kasim, M.S. 2017. Comparative Study of Tool Wear in Milling Titanium Alloy (Ti-6Al-4V) Using PVD and CVD Coated Cutting Tool, Industrial Lubrication and Tribology, Cilt. 69, s. 363-370. DOI: 10.1108/ILT-09-2016-0202
  • [16] Beake, B.D., Ning, L., Gey, Ch., Veldhuis, S.C., Komarov, A., Weaver, A., Khanna, M., Fox-Rabinovich, G.S. 2015. Wear Performance of Different PVD Coatings during Hard Wet End Milling of H13 Tool Steel, Surface & Coatings Technology, Cilt. 279, s. 118-125. DOI: 10.1016/j.surfcoat.2015.08.038
  • [17] Thakur, D.G., Ramamoorthy, B., Vijayaraghavan, L. 2012. Some Investigations on High Speed Dry Machining of Aerospace Material Inconel 718 Using Multicoated Carbide Inserts, Materials and Manufacturing Processes, Cilt. 27, s. 1066-1072. DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2011.654158
  • [18] Kulkarni, A.P., Sargade, V.G. 2015. Characterization and Performance of AlTiN, AlTiCrN, TiN/TiAlN PVD Coated Carbide Tools while Turning SS 304, Materials and Manufacturing Processes, Cilt. 30, s. 748-755. DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2014.98421
  • [19] Wang, C.Y., Xie, Y.X., Qin, Z., Lin, H.S., Yuan, Y.H., Wang, Q.M. 2015. Wear and Breakage of TiAlN- and TiSiN-Coated Carbide Tools during High-Speed Milling of Hardened Steel, Wear, Cilt. 336-337, s. 29-42. DOI: 10.1016/j.wear.2015.04.018
  • [20] Kuram, E. 2017. Nose Radius and Cutting Speed Effects during Milling of AISI 304 Material, Materials and Manufacturing Processes, Cilt. 32, s. 185-192. DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2016.1198019
  • [21] Maranhao, C., Davim, J.P., Jackson, M.J. 2011. Physical Thermomechanical Behavior in Machining an Aluminium Alloy (7075-O) Using Polycrystalline Diamond Tool, Materials and Manufacturing Processes, Cilt. 26, s. 1034-1040. DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2010.520794
  • [22] Dogra, M., Sharma, V.S. 2012. Machinability and Surface Quality Issues in Finish Turning of Hardened Steel with Coated Carbide and CBN Tools, Materials and Manufacturing Processes, Cilt. 27, s. 1110-1117. DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2011.654164
  • [23] Hassanpour, H., Sadeghi, M.H., Rezaei, H., Rasti, A. 2016. Experimental Study of Cutting Force, Microhardness, Surface Roughness, and Burr Size on Micromilling of Ti6Al4V in Minimum Quantity Lubrication, Materials and Manufacturing Processes, Cilt. 31, s. 1654-1662. DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2015.1117629
  • [24] Polini, W., Turchetta, S. 2016. Cutting Force, Tool Life and Surface Integrity in Milling of Titanium Alloy Ti-6Al-4V with Coated Carbide Tools, Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part B: Journal of Engineering Manufacture, Cilt. 230, s. 694-700. DOI: 10.1177/0954405414558732
  • [25] Hosokawa, A., Shimamura, K., Ueda, T. 2012. Cutting Characteristics of PVD-Coated Tools Deposited by Unbalanced Magnetron Sputtering Method, CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology, Cilt. 61, s. 95-98. DOI: 10.1016/j.cirp.2012.03.010
  • [26] Akhtar, W., Sun, J., Chen, W. 2016. Effect of Machining Parameters on Surface Integrity in High Speed Milling of Super Alloy GH4169/Inconel 718, Materials and Manufacturing Processes, Cilt. 31, s. 620-627. DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2014.994769
  • [27] Priyadarshi, D., Sharma, R.K. 2016. Optimization for Turning of Al-6061-SiC-Gr Hybrid Nanocomposites Using Response Surface Methodologies, Materials and Manufacturing Processes, Cilt. 31, s. 1342-1350. DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2015.1070427
  • [28] Siwawut, S., Saikaew, C., Wisitoraat, A., Surinphong, S. 2018. Cutting Performances and Wear Characteristics of WC Inserts Coated with TiAlSiN and CrTiAlSiN by Filtered Cathodic Arc in Dry Face Milling of Cast Iron, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Cilt. 97, s. 3883-3892. DOI: 10.1007/s00170-018-2200-x
  • [29] Niknam, S.A. 2013. Burrs Understanding, Modelling and Optimization during Slot Milling of Aluminium Alloys. École de Technologie Supérieure Université du Québec, Ph.D. Thesis, 209s, Montreal.

Tool Coating Effect on the Performance in Milling of Al2124 Aluminium Alloy

Year 2019, Volume: 21 Issue: 63, 749 - 760, 20.09.2019
https://doi.org/10.21205/deufmd.2019216307

Abstract




This study investigated the effect of various
coated carbide inserts and depth of cut on some machining criteria such as
surface roughness, tool wear, top burr width and milling forces during
milling of Al2124 aluminium alloy. Monolayer TiCN, AlTiN, TiAlN and two
layers TiCN + TiN, AlTiN + TiN deposited by physical vapour deposition coated
inserts were utilized in the milling experiments. From experimental results,
it was concluded that flank wear, milling forces, surface roughness and top
burr width increased with the increment in the depth of cut for all coatings.
The main wear mechanisms for all coated inserts were found to be adhesive and
abrasive wear. As a result, coated inserts with two layers (TiCN + TiN and
AlTiN + TiN) and TiCN coated inserts gave better machining performance with
respect to AlTiN and TiAlN coated inserts in milling of Al2124 aluminium
alloy.





References

  • [1] Sukumaran, K., Ravikumar, K.K., Pillai, S.G.K., Rajan, T.P.D., Ravi, M., Pillai, R.M., Pai, B.C. 2008. Studies on Squeeze Casting of Al 2124 Alloy and 2124-10% SiCp Metal Matrix Composite, Materials Science and Engineering A, Cilt. 490, s. 235-241. DOI: 10.1016/j.msea.2008.01.054
  • [2] Shaterani, P., Zarei-Hanzaki, A., Fatemi-Varzaneh, S.M., Hassas-Irani, S.B. 2014. The Second Phase Particles and Mechanical Properties of 2124 Aluminum Alloy Processed by Accumulative Back Extrusion, Materials and Design, Cilt. 58, s. 535-542. DOI: 10.1016/j.matdes.2014.01.078
  • [3] Thamban, I., Abraham, B.C., Kurian, S. 2013. Machining Characteristics Analysis of 6061-T6 Aluminium Alloy with Diamond Coated and Uncoated Tungsten Carbide Tool, International Journal of Latest Research in Science and Technology, Cilt. 2, s. 553-557.
  • [4] Vannan, R.R.R.M., Moorthy, T.V., Hariharan, P., Prabhu, P. 2016. Effect of Physical Vapour Deposited Bi-Layer (AlCrN+TiAlN) Coating on High Speed Steel Single Point Cutting Tool, Materials and Manufacturing Processes, Cilt. 32, s. 373-376. DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2016.1176178.
  • [5] Mativenga, P.T., Abukhshim, N.A., Sheikh, M.A., Hon, B.K.K. 2006. An Investigation of Tool Chip Contact Phenomena in High-Speed Turning Using Coated Tools, Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part B: Journal of Engineering Manufacture, Cilt. 220, s. 657-667. DOI: 10.1243/09544054JEM351
  • [6] Luo, Q., Robinson, G., Pittman, M., Howarth, M., Sim, W.-M., Stalley, M.R., Leitner, H., Ebner, R., Caliskanoglu, D., Hovsepian, P.E. 2005. Performance of Nano-Structured Multilayer PVD Coating TiAlN/VN in Dry High Speed Milling of Aerospace Aluminium 7010-T7651, Surface & Coatings Technology, Cilt. 200, s. 123-127. DOI: 10.1016/j.surfcoat.2005.02.017
  • [7] Najiha, M.S., Rahman, M.M., Kadirgama, K. 2015. Experimental Investigation and Optimization of Minimum Quantity Lubrication for Machining of AA6061-T6, International Journal of Automotive and Mechanical Engineering, Cilt. 11, s. 2722-2737. DOI: 10.15282/ijame.11.2015.47.0228
  • [8] Iyappan, S.K., Ghosh, A. 2015. Comparison of Tribological Properties of MoS2 and Graphite-PTFE Coatings and its Impact on Machining of Aluminium by HSS End Mills, Materials and Manufacturing Processes, Cilt. 30, s. 912-920. DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2014.984212
  • [9] Wertheim, R. 2001. New Directions in Cutting Tool Materials and Machining Options.
  • [10] Dogra, M., Sharma, V.S., Sachdeva, A., Suri, N.M. 2012. Finish Hard Turning of Continuous and Interrupted Surfaces with Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN) and Coated Carbide Tools, Materials and Manufacturing Processes, Cilt. 27, s. 523-530. DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2011.593238
  • [11] Zheng, G., Zhao, J., Cheng, X., Xu, R., Zhao, G. 2016. Experimental Investigation on Sialon Ceramic Inserts for Ultra-High-Speed Milling of Inconel 718, Materials and Manufacturing Processes, Cilt. 31, s. 633-640. DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2015.1019090
  • [12] Thakur, A., Gangopadhyay, S., Mohanty, A. 2015. Investigation on Some Machinability Aspects of Inconel 825 during Dry Turning, Materials and Manufacturing Processes, Cilt. 30, s. 1026-1034. DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2014.984216
  • [13] Kong, X., Yang, L., Zhang, H., Zhou, K., Wang, Y. 2015. Cutting Performance and Coated Tool Wear Mechanisms in Laser-Assisted Milling K24 Nickel-Based Superalloy, International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Cilt. 77, s. 2151-2163. DOI: 10.1007/s00170-014-6606-9
  • [14] Mohanty, S., Gangopadhyay, S., Thakur, A. 2016. On Applicability of Multilayer Coated Tool in Dry Machining of Aerospace Grade Stainless Steel, Materials and Manufacturing Processes, Cilt. 31, s. 869-879. DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2015.1070413
  • [15] Abdullah, R.I.R., Redzuwan, B.I., Aziz, M.S.A., Kasim, M.S. 2017. Comparative Study of Tool Wear in Milling Titanium Alloy (Ti-6Al-4V) Using PVD and CVD Coated Cutting Tool, Industrial Lubrication and Tribology, Cilt. 69, s. 363-370. DOI: 10.1108/ILT-09-2016-0202
  • [16] Beake, B.D., Ning, L., Gey, Ch., Veldhuis, S.C., Komarov, A., Weaver, A., Khanna, M., Fox-Rabinovich, G.S. 2015. Wear Performance of Different PVD Coatings during Hard Wet End Milling of H13 Tool Steel, Surface & Coatings Technology, Cilt. 279, s. 118-125. DOI: 10.1016/j.surfcoat.2015.08.038
  • [17] Thakur, D.G., Ramamoorthy, B., Vijayaraghavan, L. 2012. Some Investigations on High Speed Dry Machining of Aerospace Material Inconel 718 Using Multicoated Carbide Inserts, Materials and Manufacturing Processes, Cilt. 27, s. 1066-1072. DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2011.654158
  • [18] Kulkarni, A.P., Sargade, V.G. 2015. Characterization and Performance of AlTiN, AlTiCrN, TiN/TiAlN PVD Coated Carbide Tools while Turning SS 304, Materials and Manufacturing Processes, Cilt. 30, s. 748-755. DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2014.98421
  • [19] Wang, C.Y., Xie, Y.X., Qin, Z., Lin, H.S., Yuan, Y.H., Wang, Q.M. 2015. Wear and Breakage of TiAlN- and TiSiN-Coated Carbide Tools during High-Speed Milling of Hardened Steel, Wear, Cilt. 336-337, s. 29-42. DOI: 10.1016/j.wear.2015.04.018
  • [20] Kuram, E. 2017. Nose Radius and Cutting Speed Effects during Milling of AISI 304 Material, Materials and Manufacturing Processes, Cilt. 32, s. 185-192. DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2016.1198019
  • [21] Maranhao, C., Davim, J.P., Jackson, M.J. 2011. Physical Thermomechanical Behavior in Machining an Aluminium Alloy (7075-O) Using Polycrystalline Diamond Tool, Materials and Manufacturing Processes, Cilt. 26, s. 1034-1040. DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2010.520794
  • [22] Dogra, M., Sharma, V.S. 2012. Machinability and Surface Quality Issues in Finish Turning of Hardened Steel with Coated Carbide and CBN Tools, Materials and Manufacturing Processes, Cilt. 27, s. 1110-1117. DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2011.654164
  • [23] Hassanpour, H., Sadeghi, M.H., Rezaei, H., Rasti, A. 2016. Experimental Study of Cutting Force, Microhardness, Surface Roughness, and Burr Size on Micromilling of Ti6Al4V in Minimum Quantity Lubrication, Materials and Manufacturing Processes, Cilt. 31, s. 1654-1662. DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2015.1117629
  • [24] Polini, W., Turchetta, S. 2016. Cutting Force, Tool Life and Surface Integrity in Milling of Titanium Alloy Ti-6Al-4V with Coated Carbide Tools, Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part B: Journal of Engineering Manufacture, Cilt. 230, s. 694-700. DOI: 10.1177/0954405414558732
  • [25] Hosokawa, A., Shimamura, K., Ueda, T. 2012. Cutting Characteristics of PVD-Coated Tools Deposited by Unbalanced Magnetron Sputtering Method, CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology, Cilt. 61, s. 95-98. DOI: 10.1016/j.cirp.2012.03.010
  • [26] Akhtar, W., Sun, J., Chen, W. 2016. Effect of Machining Parameters on Surface Integrity in High Speed Milling of Super Alloy GH4169/Inconel 718, Materials and Manufacturing Processes, Cilt. 31, s. 620-627. DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2014.994769
  • [27] Priyadarshi, D., Sharma, R.K. 2016. Optimization for Turning of Al-6061-SiC-Gr Hybrid Nanocomposites Using Response Surface Methodologies, Materials and Manufacturing Processes, Cilt. 31, s. 1342-1350. DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2015.1070427
  • [28] Siwawut, S., Saikaew, C., Wisitoraat, A., Surinphong, S. 2018. Cutting Performances and Wear Characteristics of WC Inserts Coated with TiAlSiN and CrTiAlSiN by Filtered Cathodic Arc in Dry Face Milling of Cast Iron, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Cilt. 97, s. 3883-3892. DOI: 10.1007/s00170-018-2200-x
  • [29] Niknam, S.A. 2013. Burrs Understanding, Modelling and Optimization during Slot Milling of Aluminium Alloys. École de Technologie Supérieure Université du Québec, Ph.D. Thesis, 209s, Montreal.
There are 29 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language English
Subjects Engineering
Journal Section Articles
Authors

Emel Kuram 0000-0003-3864-7582

Publication Date September 20, 2019
Published in Issue Year 2019 Volume: 21 Issue: 63

Cite

APA Kuram, E. (2019). Tool Coating Effect on the Performance in Milling of Al2124 Aluminium Alloy. Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Mühendislik Fakültesi Fen Ve Mühendislik Dergisi, 21(63), 749-760. https://doi.org/10.21205/deufmd.2019216307
AMA Kuram E. Tool Coating Effect on the Performance in Milling of Al2124 Aluminium Alloy. DEUFMD. September 2019;21(63):749-760. doi:10.21205/deufmd.2019216307
Chicago Kuram, Emel. “Tool Coating Effect on the Performance in Milling of Al2124 Aluminium Alloy”. Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Mühendislik Fakültesi Fen Ve Mühendislik Dergisi 21, no. 63 (September 2019): 749-60. https://doi.org/10.21205/deufmd.2019216307.
EndNote Kuram E (September 1, 2019) Tool Coating Effect on the Performance in Milling of Al2124 Aluminium Alloy. Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Mühendislik Fakültesi Fen ve Mühendislik Dergisi 21 63 749–760.
IEEE E. Kuram, “Tool Coating Effect on the Performance in Milling of Al2124 Aluminium Alloy”, DEUFMD, vol. 21, no. 63, pp. 749–760, 2019, doi: 10.21205/deufmd.2019216307.
ISNAD Kuram, Emel. “Tool Coating Effect on the Performance in Milling of Al2124 Aluminium Alloy”. Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Mühendislik Fakültesi Fen ve Mühendislik Dergisi 21/63 (September 2019), 749-760. https://doi.org/10.21205/deufmd.2019216307.
JAMA Kuram E. Tool Coating Effect on the Performance in Milling of Al2124 Aluminium Alloy. DEUFMD. 2019;21:749–760.
MLA Kuram, Emel. “Tool Coating Effect on the Performance in Milling of Al2124 Aluminium Alloy”. Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Mühendislik Fakültesi Fen Ve Mühendislik Dergisi, vol. 21, no. 63, 2019, pp. 749-60, doi:10.21205/deufmd.2019216307.
Vancouver Kuram E. Tool Coating Effect on the Performance in Milling of Al2124 Aluminium Alloy. DEUFMD. 2019;21(63):749-60.

Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi, Mühendislik Fakültesi Dekanlığı Tınaztepe Yerleşkesi, Adatepe Mah. Doğuş Cad. No: 207-I / 35390 Buca-İZMİR.