OKUL KUPONU REFORMU, GELİŞİMİ VE EĞİTİME ETKİLERİ: ŞİLİ ÖRNEĞİ

Abstract

This article examines school voucher reform using the Chilean case. In 1980, the Chilean military government introduced school voucher reform, which allows parents to enroll their children to private schools, nation-wide in its most complete form. The Chilean case presents us with a unique opportunity to understand educational vouchers due to the comprehensive and continuous nature of the reform. In this survey of the literature, fundamentals of school vouchers are first introduced, and the reform’s application and development in Chile are discussed. Moreover, in order to understand the vouchers’ impact on the education system, decentralization reform and institutional variables such as different school sectors and the rules that govern them are examined. The results show that school voucher reform interacts with decentralization, different school sectors borne of voucher reform are socio-economically segregated, and that the reform could not deliver the expected nation-wide improvements in primary education to date

Keywords

• Education Policy, School Vouchers, Universal School Choice, Chile

OKUL KUPONU REFORMU, GELİŞİMİ VE EĞİTİME ETKİLERİ: ŞİLİ ÖRNEĞİ

Abstract

Bu makalede okul kuponu reformu Şili örneği ile incelenmiştir. Şili askeri yönetimi 1980’den itibaren velilerin çocuklarını isterlerse özel okula yazdırmalarını sağlayan eğitim kuponu sistemini tüm ana özellikleri ile benimseyerek ülke çapında uygulamıştır. Uygulamanın kapsamı ve sürekliliği nedeniyle Şili örneği eğitimde kupon sistemini anlamak için eşşiz bir fırsat sunar. Bu literatür taramasında öncelikle ilköğretimde kupon reformu ana özellikleri ile tanıtılmış, Şili’de okul kuponu refromunun zaman içinde uygulanış ve gelişim süreçleri anlatılmıştır. Ayrıca, kupon reformunun eğitim sistemi üzerindeki sonuçlarının anlaşılması için bu reform ile aynı zamanda uygulamaya konulmuş olan yerinden yönetim reformu, farklı okul sektörleri ve bu sektörlerin uymakla yükümlü olduğu farklı kurallar gibi kurumsal değişkenler gerek konu ile ilgili araştırmalar taranarak ve gerekse ikincil veriler kullanılarak irdelenmiştir. Bu çalışmanın sonuçları okul kuponu reformunun yerinden yönetim reformu ile etkileştiğini, reform sonucu ortaya çıkan farklı okul sektörlerinin sosyo-ekonomik düzlemde ayrıştığını, ve neticede reformun kendisinden beklenen ülke çapında ilköğretimde iyileşmeyi bugüne dek sağlayamadığını göstermiştir

Keywords

• Eğitim Politikaları, Okul Kuponları, Evrensel Okul Seçim Sistemi, Şili

References

1. BIBLIOTECA DEL CONGRESO NACIONAL. (1980). Constitucion Politica de la Republica de Chile de 1980. http://www.bcn.cl/leyes/pdf/actualizado/242302.pdf
2. BIBLIOTECA DEL CONGRESO NACIONAL. (1980). Estatuto Docente. http://subvenciones.mineduc.cl/seccion/documento/2D2002040416132811094.pdf
3. CARNOY, M. AND McEWAN, P. J. (2003). “Does Privatization Improve Education? The Case of Chile’s National Voucher Plan”. In D. N. Plank ve G. Sykes (Eds.), Choosing Choice: School Choice In International Perspective, (pp. 24-44). New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
4. CASTAÑEDA, T. (1992). Combating Poverty: Innovative Social Reforms in Chile during the 1980s. San Francisco, Ca.: International Center for Economic Growth.
5. CHUBB, J. E. AND TERRY, M. M. (1990). Politics, Markets, and America's Schools. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press.
6. CHUBB, J. E. (2001). “The Profit Motive. The Private Can Be Public”, Education Next, 1: 1.
7. COX, C. AND P. GONZALEZ. (1998). “Educacion: De Programas De Mejoramiento A Reforma”. In Rene Cortazar and Joaquin Vial (Eds.), Construyendo Opciones: Propuestas Economical Y Sociales Para El Cambio De Siglo (pp.233-277). Santiago: Cieplan-Dolmen.
8. CLERT, C. AND WODON, Q. (2001). The Targeting of Government Programs in Chile: A Quantitative and Qualitative Assessment. World Bank, August.

9. DELANNOY, F. (2000). “Education Reforms in Chile, 1980–98: A Lesson in Pragmatism, Country Studies”, Education Reform and Management Series, 1(1), Washington DC: World Bank.
10. DEPARTAMENTO DE ESTUDIOS Y DESARROLLO. (2006). Anuarios Estadisticos. Capitulo_4. http://w3app.mineduc.cl/DedPublico/anuarios_estadisticos
11. DEPARTAMENTO DE ESTUDIOS Y DESARROLLO. (2007). Guia de Subvenciones Educacionales. División de Planificación y Presupuesto, Ministerio de Educación. July. Santiago. http://w3app.mineduc.cl/mineduc/ded/documentos/Guia%20Subvenciones%202007.pdf
12. DEPARTAMENTO DE ESTUDIOS Y DESARROLLO. (2012). http://data.mineduc.cl/
13. ELACQUA, G. (2005): “How Do For-Profit Schools Respond to Voucher Funding? Evidence from Chile,” Occasional Paper Series National Center for Study of Privatization in Education, Teachers College, Columbia University.
14. ELACQUA, G., D. CONTRERAS AND F. SALAZAR. (2008). “Scaling up in Chile”, Education Next. 8(3).
15. ESPINOLA, V. (1993) “The Educational Reform Of The Military Regime In Chile: The School System's Response To Competition, Choice, And Market Relations," Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Wales College, Cardiff.
16. FRIEDMAN, M. (1962). Capitalism and Freedom. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
17. FOXLEY, A. (1983). Latin American Experiments in Neoconservative Economics. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
18. GAURI, V. (1998). School Choice in Chile: Two Decades of Educational Reform. Pittsburgh, PA, University of Pittsburgh Press.
19. GONZÁLEZ, P., MIZALA, A. AND ROMAGUERA, P. (2004). “Vouchers, Inequalities and the Chilean Experience”, Working Paper, Center for Applied Economics (CEA).
20. HSIEH, C. T., AND URQUIOLA, M. (2006). “The Effects Of Generalized School Choice on Achievement and Stratification: Evidence From Chile’s School Voucher Program”, Journal of Public Economics, 90:1477–1503.
21. JOFRE, G. (1988). “El Sistema de Subvenciones en Educacion: La Experiencia Chilena”, Documento de Trabajo No: 99, Santiago: Centro de Estudios Publicos.
22. LADD, H. AND FISKE, E. B. (2001). “The Uneven Playing Field of School Choice: Evidence from New Zealand”, Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 20(1): 43-63.
23. McEWAN, P.J. AND CARNOY, M. (1999). “The Impact of Competition on Public School Quality: Longitudinal Evidence on Chile’s Voucher System”, Unpublished manuscript, Stanford University.
24. McEWAN, P.J. AND CARNOY, M. (2000). “Effectiveness and Efficiency of Private Schools in Chile’s Voucher System”, Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 22: 213-240.
25. McEWAN, P.J. (2001). “The Effectiveness Of Public, Catholic, And Non-Religious Private Schools In Chile’s Voucher System”, Education Economics, 9(2): 103-28.
26. MINEDUC. (2008). The Chilean Education System, Agenda II Forum Hemisférico: “La Calidad de la Educación” www.inep.gov.br/internacional/forum2/apresentacoes/14-06/5.ppt
27. OECD. (2004). Revisión de Políticas Nacionales de Educación. Paris: OECD.
28. OPPENHEIMER, L. H. (2007). Politics in Chile: Socialism, Authoritarianism, and Market Democracy. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
29. MAGENDZO, A.,EGANA, L. AND LATORRE, C. L. (1988). La Educacion Particular y los Esquemas Privatizantes en Educacion bajo un Estado Subsidario (1973-1987). Santiago: PIIE
30. McMEEKEN, R. W. (2004). “Chile: Vouchers and Beyond”. In Iris C. Rotberg (Ed.) Balancing Change and Tradition in Global Education Reform (pp.83-107). Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
31. MINVU. (1998). Plan Regional de Desarrollo Urbano. Santiago.
32. PARRY, T. R. (1997). “Decentralization and Privatization: Education Policy in Chile”, Journal of Policy, 17(1): 107-133.
33. PLANK, D. N. AND SYKES, G. (2003). Choosing Choice: School Choice in International Perspective. NY: Teachers College Press.
34. SALMAN, T. (1994). “Challenging the City, Joining the City: The Chilean Pobladores between Social Movement and Social Integration”, Bulletin of Latin American Research, 13(1): 79-90.
35. STEWART, F. AND RANIS, G. (1994). “Decentralization in Chile”, Human Development Report Occasional Papers No. 14. New York: United Nations.
36. UNIDAD DE CURRÍCULUM Y EVALUACIÓN (UCE). (2008). Resultados Nacionales SIMCE. Santiago: Ministerio de Educación.
37. VALDES, J. G. (1995). Pinochet’s Economists: The Chicago School in Chile. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
38. WOLF, P. AND MACEDO, S. (2004). Educating Citizens: International Perspectives on Civic Values and School Choice. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
39. i In fact, market reform ideas began to take shape at beginning of the 1950s in the publications of Economic
40. Commission for Latin America of the United Nations, and in collaborations between University of Chicago
41. Department of Economics and Universidad Catolica in Chile.
42. ii As part of a contract between the University of Chicago, the Universidad Catolica de Chile, and the International
43. Cooperation Administration (later Agency for International Development), which fostered the study of economics in
44. Chile, a group of twenty six Chilean economists were trained in Chicago. Some of them were hired as full professors
45. upon their return to Chile by Universidad Catolica where they completely transformed the economics department
46. with the help of their professors at Chicago. Hence, Universidad Catolica’s “Chilean Project” supplied the human
47. capital needed by the military government to create a new regime and became the ideological hub for the social
48. reforms that followed.
49. iii Similar1980 television series “Free to Choose” by Milton Friedman was broadcast in the US by Public
50. Broadcasting Corporation. The series was updated in 1990 with introductions by figures like Arnold Schwarzenegger
51. Hence, urban segregation and geographically clustered school choice sets of parents may still make these transfers
52. electorally useful for mayors.
53. vi The “shared financing” law in Chile allows private voucher schools and public high schools to charge fees that can
54. be up to 1.6 times the basic voucher payment. Discounts to vouchers are applied progressively. If monthly tuition is
55. less than half the level of the Unidad de Subvención Escolar (USE), no discount is applied. Tuition fees between one
56. half and one USE incur a 10% deduction. Fees between one and two USE incur a 20% deduction. Fee charging
57. schools must also devote up to 10% of their additional income to finance scholarships. The USE is the monetary
58. index, valued at $14.206,936 Chilean pesos (US$ 29.6) in 2007.
59. vii Branches of the Catholic Church include religious orders, parishes, archdiocese, and religious foundations.
60. viii Protestant church schools include Methodist, Baptist, Seventh-Day Adventist, Anglican, Lutheran, Presbyterian churches.
61. ix Most of the secular nonprofit schools are branches of foundations that were created for other specific tasks, such as
62. the Aid Corporation for Children with Cancer. Some foundations were created by community development groups
63. such as the Rural Social Development Corporation.
64. x The figures presented in Tables 1 and 2 are available only for the 2007 examinations. The Ministry of Education in
65. Chile determines the socio-economic status of schools based on the information collected with the administration of
66. SIMCE tests, based on -among other things- parent surveys. SIMCE test are administered in all schools at 4th and 8th
67. grades of the primary school and the 2nd grade of high school. Hence the Tables 1 and 2 show enrollment and the
68. number of schools across socioeconomic categories and school sectors based on 2007 SIMCE tests of language and
69. mathematics for 4th graders.
70. xi Rules on the selection of school names and colors for school uniforms apply to both sectors, public and private vouchers.
71. xii See http://www.seremi13minvu.cl/ for different Decrees and Laws applied by the Metropolitan Region of Santiago SEREMI.
72. xiii See http://subvenciones.mineduc.cl/seccion/documento/2D2002040416132811094.pdf for the Estatuto Docente.
73. xiv The 5th requirement entry continues with the internal disciplinary measures. See
74. http://w3app.mineduc.cl/mineduc/ded/documentos/Guia%20Subvenciones%202007.pdf
75. xv In 2007, the maximum contribution at the time of registration was 3,500 Chilean Pesos. The contribution can be
76. paid monthly. Also, Parents Association can charge contributions up to 16,000 Chilean pesos, which can be paid in installments.
77. xvi In 2007, such schools were allowed to charge selection fees up to 3,500 Chilean Pesos.
78. xvii The information is based on an interview with Gregory Elacqua, former advisor to the Chilean Minister of
79. Education, dated February 20, 2008.
80. xviii However, one should also note that religiously affiliated private voucher schools may have their respective
81. religious bureaucracy.