COLONIAL BOUNDARIES OF AFRICA: THE CASE OF ETHIOPIA’S BOUNDARY WITH SUDAN

Year 2009, Volume: 9 Issue: 1, 337 - 367, 01.02.2009

Wondwosen Teshome

Abstract

The aim of this paper is to study the merits and the demerits of colonial boundaries in Africa by using the Ethiopia-Sudan boundary as a case study. The paper tries to examine how the existing boundary between the two countries came into being in the early 20th century. The present-day boundary between Ethiopia and Sudan is principally the result of the 1902 and 1907 Anglo-Ethiopian delimitation treaties which were demarcated in 1903 and 1909 respectively. At present, there is confusion and controversy in Ethiopia, particularly, after the exposure of the alleged “secret” re-demarcation deal between the current governments of Ethiopia and Sudan that resulted, according to various media reports, in the ceding of huge Ethiopian border land to Sudan along their common border. This paper explores the historical background of the boundary conflict and gives an insight to the current boundary problem between Ethiopia and Sudan

Keywords

Africa, Anglo-Abyssinia, Boundary, Ethiopia, Haile Selassie I, Major Charles Gwynn, Menelik II, Sudan

References

• (1) The Ethiopian emperor who initiated the re-unification process of the country. He ruled the country from 1855 to 1868 and died fighting against the British at Maqdalla in 1868.
• (2) OLF (Oromo Liberation Front); EPPF (Ethiopian Peoples Patriotic Front) (3) It was Stephen Jones who outlined the “traditional” four stages of boundary making in 1945. However, as Pratt (2006) noted the four stages (i.e.delimitation, demarcation, maintenance and management) should not be seen as totally independent processes. In many cases they overlap.
• (4) On the other hand, Prescott (1979) identifies only three stages in boundary making: allocation, delimitation and demarcation.
• (5) Ron Adler calls the politicians and their advisers as “boundary architects” and the technical specialists as “boundary engineers” (Blake 1995: 45).
• (6) As stated elsewhere in this paper, Charles Gwynn who delimited and demarcated Ethiopia’s border with Sudan was employed by the Royal Engineers Officers. (7) Blake (1995: 46) argues that “agreements are.......perfectly valid without demarcation.”
• (8) As Rushworth (1997:61) emphasized “delimitation” requires the arts of diplomacy, while “demarcation” is a mechanical process. In short, delimitation is drawing a line on the map while demarcation is drawing a line on the ground.
• (9) This is particularly true in poor countries like Ethiopia and Sudan. (10) Loisel (2004: 4) argues that in 1990 almost 87% of African borders were inherited from colonial era.
• (11) Foucher (1991: 202) claimed that by 1991, 41% of African border had never been demarcated.
• (12) On the other hand, Asiwaju and Nugent (1993) criticized the perception that claims African ethnic conflicts are caused by irrational colonial boundaries.
• (13) This means, according to Griggs (1997: 64), after independence African countries agreed to stick with colonial boundaries which were the result of the Berlin Conference. Herbst (1989: 673) argues: “there is widespread agreement that the boundaries are arbitrary, yet the vast majority of them have remained virtually untouched since the late 1800’s, when they were first demarcated.” The only two exceptions are Eritrea and the Western Sahara.
• (14) Griggs (1997: 66) argues that African colonial boundaries are also the causes for high economic costs. That is to say, due to border disputes African countries purchase armaments and sometimes the expense is equivalent to the foreign aid they are receiving.
• (15) E.g., the relation between the ancient Axumite Kingdom of Ethiopia and the Meroe Kingdom of Sudan. (16) Egypt annexed Sudan in 1821-1822.
• (17) Named after their leader Muhammad Ahmad (“Mahdi”) who later ruled Sudan from June 1881 to June 1885 by expelling the Anglo-Egyptian forces.
• (18) The Mahdists successfully expelled the Egyptians from Sudan and occupied Khartoum in 1885.
• (19) Khalifa Abdallah succeeded Mahdi and ruled Sudan from June 1885 to September 1898.
• (20) According to Abdussamad (1999), “Towards the end of the nineteenth century, the Ethiopian empire incorporated the north western border enclaves of
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• (24) The forces of Khalifa were able to push the British forces towards Gedaref and Gallabat provinces and Blue Nile and Sobat rivers (Gwynn 1937: 151)
• (25) Named after the head of the delegation, James Rennell Rodd. (26) By that time, the British themselves had no clear information about the Ethiopia-Sudan border areas. According to Gwynn (1937: 150-151), “to take the case of the Sudan; the maps in much of the frontier regions were blank, and other parts were out of date-nor could the Abyssinians supply reliable information”.
• (27) As I stated earlier, the Dervishes defeated the Anglo-Egyptian forces in and drove them from cities like Khartoum. However, in July 1894, the Italians under General Baratieri expanded their holding from Massawa and conquered Kassala from the Dervishes. When the Italians were defeated by
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• (28) Captain Bright had previously conducted an expedition from East Africa to the northern end of Lake Rudolf (29) Elaboration is mine (30) In the following years, some of the communities resisted the British’s attempt to put them in Sudan. One of the leaders of the resistance was Ibrahim Wad Mahmud. Then, the British sent an army to crush the resistance and hanged Ibrahim Wad Mahmud in Khartoum (See Gwynn 1937: 154).
• (31) As testified by Mburu (2003:20) “Addis Ababa renounced Britain’s attempt to rectify this border through a survey by Major Charles Gwynn (Royal
• Engineers) in August 1908 for excluding Ethiopian surveyors.”
• (32) The preliminary survey of the Kenya-Ethiopia boundary was earlier carried out by Captain P. Maud R.E., in the winter of 1902-1903. He surveyed the area between the Dawa River and Lake Rudolf (Gwynn 1937: 159).
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