Some Immune Mechanisms of Parkinson’s Disease

Ömer Faruk Başer; Selina Aksak Karameşe; Mahmut Karapehlivan; Pınar Bayram; Murat Karameşe

doi:10.5281/zenodo.17786894

Some Immune Mechanisms of Parkinson’s Disease

Abstract

Neurodegenerative diseases that usually occur at an advanced age are characterized by progressive neuronal damage, deterioration of neuronal structure, the initiation of cellular apoptosis processes and the activation of many immune mechanisms. Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder. Despite studies on the pathophysiology and treatment of PD, knowledge is limited. Some immune mechanisms and intercellular interactions such as abnormal protein accumulation in neurons, ER stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, microglial activation and inflammation, excitotoxicity, apoptosis, and heat-shock proteins are involved in the development of the disease. Although the causes of neurodegeneration in PD are unknown, there are many different conditions that have been proposed in the pathologic evaluation of the disease. These include abnormal protein accumulation in dopaminergic neurons (Ubiquitin-Proteasome System (UPS)), Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, microglial activation and inflammation, excitotoxicity, apoptosis, Heat Shock Proteins (Hsp), environmental and genetic factors. After reviewing the pathogenesis of PD and the pathways/proteins/genes that play an active role in this process in great detail above, we think it is necessary to focus on preventive and therapeutic actions for PD. The prevalence of PD is expected to increase rapidly as the global population ages, affecting approximately 13 million people by 2040. With this increase, the economic and social burden will increase unless the disease is treated or prevented more effectively. Current treatments significantly improve the quality of life of patients, but there is currently no definitive cure. So far, giving patients 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA) is one of the most effective treatment options. Therefore, in addition to medication, alternative treatment options are being sought to improve the quality of life.

Keywords

oxidative stress , neuroapoptosis , ER stress , immune mechanisms , Parkinson’s disease

References

1. Gorman AM. Neuronal cell death in neurodegenerative diseases: recurring themes around protein handling. Journal of cellular and molecular medicine. 2008;12(6a):2263-80.
2. Garofalo M, Pandini C, Bordoni M, Pansarasa O, Rey F, Costa A, et al. Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis gene expression patterns divergence reveals different grade of RNA metabolism involvement. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2020;21(24):9500.
3. WHO. WHO. “Parkinson Disease”. n.d. Accessed 10 January 2025. https,//www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/parkinson-disease. WHO “Parkinson Disease” nd Accessed 10 January 2025 https,//wwwwhoint/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/parkinson-disease. 2025(Parkinson Disease).
4. Cossette M, Lévesque D, Parent A. Neurochemical characterization of dopaminergic neurons in human striatum. Parkinsonism & related disorders. 2005;11(5):277-86.
5. Smith Y, Wichmann T, Factor SA, DeLong MR. Parkinson's disease therapeutics: new developments and challenges since the introduction of levodopa. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2012;37(1):213-46.
6. Wakabayashi K, Tanji K, Odagiri S, Miki Y, Mori F, Takahashi H. The Lewy body in Parkinson’s disease and related neurodegenerative disorders. Molecular neurobiology. 2013;47:495-508.
7. Ferrer I, Martinez A, Blanco R, Dalfó E, Carmona M. Neuropathology of sporadic Parkinson disease before the appearance of parkinsonism: preclinical Parkinson disease. Journal of neural transmission. 2011;118:821-39.
8. Roshan MH, Tambo A, Pace NP. Potential role of caffeine in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease. The open neurology journal. 2016;10:42.
9. Yamada K, Takahashi S, Karube F, Fujiyama F, Kobayashi K, Nishi A, et al. Neuronal circuits and physiological roles of the basal ganglia in terms of transmitters, receptors and related disorders. The journal of physiological sciences. 2016;66:435-46.
10. Calabresi P, Picconi B, Tozzi A, Ghiglieri V, Di Filippo M. Direct and indirect pathways of basal ganglia: a critical reappraisal. Nature neuroscience. 2014;17(8):1022-30.

11. Klein E, Willmes K, Bieck SM, Bloechle J, Moeller K. White matter neuro-plasticity in mental arithmetic: Changes inhippocampal connectivity following arithmetic drill training. Cortex. 2019;114:115-23.
12. Çolak S, Koc K, Yıldırım S, Geyikoğlu F. Effects of boric acid on ovarian tissue damage caused by experimental ischemia/reperfusion. Biotechnic & Histochemistry. 2022;97(6):415-22.
13. Song JiHoon SJ, Kang KiSung KK, Choi YouKyung CY. Protective effect of casuarinin against glutamate-induced apoptosis in HT22 cells through inhibition of oxidative stress-mediated MAPK phosphorylation. 2017.
14. Hu Q, Wang G. Mitochondrial dysfunction in Parkinson’s disease. Translational neurodegeneration. 2016;5:1-8.
15. Dölle C, Flønes I, Nido GS, Miletic H, Osuagwu N, Kristoffersen S, et al. Defective mitochondrial DNA homeostasis in the substantia nigra in Parkinson disease. Nature communications. 2016;7(1):13548.
16. Xia N, Zhang P, Fang F, Wang Z, Rothstein M, Angulo B, et al. Transcriptional comparison of human induced and primary midbrain dopaminergic neurons. Scientific reports. 2016;6(1):20270.
17. Mallet N, Delgado L, Chazalon M, Miguelez C, Baufreton J. Cellular and synaptic dysfunctions in Parkinson’s disease: stepping out of the striatum. Cells. 2019;8(9):1005.
18. De Virgilio A, Greco A, Fabbrini G, Inghilleri M, Rizzo MI, Gallo A, et al. Parkinson's disease: autoimmunity and neuroinflammation. Autoimmunity reviews. 2016;15(10):1005-11.
19. Hasan H, Athauda DS, Foltynie T, Noyce AJ. Technologies assessing limb bradykinesia in Parkinson’s disease. Journal of Parkinson's disease. 2017;7(1):65-77.
20. Erro R, Stamelou M. The motor syndrome of Parkinson's disease. International review of neurobiology. 2017;132:25-32.
21. Cazorla M, Kang UJ, Kellendonk C. Balancing the basal ganglia circuitry: a possible new role for dopamine D2 receptors in health and disease. Movement Disorders. 2015;30(7):895-903.
22. Jankovic J. Parkinson’s disease: clinical features and diagnosis. Journal of neurology, neurosurgery & psychiatry. 2008;79(4):368-76.
23. Görlach A, Klappa P, Kietzmann DT. The endoplasmic reticulum: folding, calcium homeostasis, signaling, and redox control. Antioxidants & redox signaling. 2006;8(9-10):1391-418.
24. Timmins JM, Ozcan L, Seimon TA, Li G, Malagelada C, Backs J, et al. Calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II links ER stress with Fas and mitochondrial apoptosis pathways. The Journal of clinical investigation. 2009;119(10):2925-41.
25. Marciniak SJ, Ron D. Endoplasmic reticulum stress signaling in disease. Physiological reviews. 2006;86(4):1133-49.
26. Nishikawa S-i, Brodsky JL, Nakatsukasa K. Roles of molecular chaperones in endoplasmic reticulum (ER) quality control and ER-associated degradation (ERAD). Journal of biochemistry. 2005;137(5):551-5.
27. Tsujii S, Ishisaka M, Hara H. Modulation of endoplasmic reticulum stress in Parkinson's disease. European journal of pharmacology. 2015;765:154-6.
28. Düzgün A, Alaçam H, Okuyucu A. Endoplazmik retikulum stresi ve katlanmamış protein cevabı. Journal of Experimental and Clinical Medicine. 2012;29(2):95-100.
29. Green DR. Apoptotic pathways: ten minutes to dead. Cell. 2005;121(5):671-4.
30. Tabas I, Ron D. Integrating the mechanisms of apoptosis induced by endoplasmic reticulum stress. Nature cell biology. 2011;13(3):184-90.
31. Köse Ö, Erkekoğlu P, Özyurt B, Gümüşel BK. Endoplazmik retikülum stresi ve obezite ilişkisine genel bir bakış. Journal of Literature Pharmacy Sciences. 2017;6(2):77-93.
32. Maiti P, Manna J, Dunbar GL. Current understanding of the molecular mechanisms in Parkinson's disease: Targets for potential treatments. Translational neurodegeneration. 2017;6:1-35.
33. Iovino L, Tremblay M, Civiero L. Glutamate-induced excitotoxicity in Parkinson's disease: The role of glial cells. Journal of pharmacological sciences. 2020;144(3):151-64.
34. Binvignat O, Olloquequi J. Excitotoxicity as a target against neurodegenerative processes. Current Pharmaceutical Design. 2020;26(12):1251-62.
35. Dexter DT, Jenner P. Parkinson disease: from pathology to molecular disease mechanisms. Free Radical Biology and Medicine. 2013;62:132-44.
36. Paul S, Mahanta S. Association of heat-shock proteins in various neurodegenerative disorders: is it a master key to open the therapeutic door? Molecular and cellular biochemistry. 2014;386:45-61.
37. Aghazadeh N, Beilankouhi EAV, Fakhri F, Gargari MK, Bahari P, Moghadami A, et al. Involvement of heat shock proteins and parkin/α-synuclein axis in Parkinson’s disease. Molecular Biology Reports. 2022;49(11):11061-70.
38. KEGG. https://www.genome.jp/pathway/map04141. https://wwwgenomejp/pathway/map04141. 2024(pathway).
39. Lees AJ, Hardy J, Revesz T. Parkinson's disease. The Lancet. 2009;373(9680):2055

Details

Primary Language

English

Subjects

Clinical Sciences (Other)

Journal Section

Review Article

Authors

Ömer Faruk Başer
0000-0002-7201-4490
Türkiye

Selina Aksak Karameşe
0000-0002-4820-2096
Türkiye

Mahmut Karapehlivan
0000-0003-0408-534X
Türkiye

Pınar Bayram This is me
0000-0003-1054-4602
Türkiye

Murat Karameşe ^*
0000-0001-7803-1462
Türkiye

Early Pub Date

December 11, 2025

Publication Date

December 13, 2025

Submission Date

May 22, 2025

Acceptance Date

September 9, 2025

Published in Issue

Year 2025 Volume: 4 Number: 2

DOI

https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17786894

IZ

https://izlik.org/JA94XD38XX

APA

Başer, Ö. F., Aksak Karameşe, S., Karapehlivan, M., Bayram, P., & Karameşe, M. (2025). Some Immune Mechanisms of Parkinson’s Disease. Eurasian Journal of Molecular and Biochemical Sciences, 4(2), 133-141. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17786894

Some Immune Mechanisms of Parkinson’s Disease

Abstract

Keywords

References

Details

Primary Language

Subjects

Journal Section

Authors

Early Pub Date

Publication Date

Submission Date

Acceptance Date

Published in Issue

DOI

IZ

Cite