Occurrence of bromide and bromate in chlorinated indoor swimming pools, and associated health risks

Abstract

Swimming is a physical activity that is accessible to people of all ages in all seasons. However, continuous organic and inorganic precursor load and disinfectant dosing make pool water chemistry much more complex than other disinfected waters. Carcinogenic bromate compound is one of the hundreds of disinfection by-products in pool water. The occurrence of bromate in pool waters depends on the precursor content of filling water, the disinfection process, operating parameters, and the purity of disinfectants. While the average filling water bromide concentrations of University Campus indoor swimming pool in Gülbahçe –Urla (SP1) and Buca public indoor swimming pool (SP2) were determined to be 182 μg/L and 11.0 μg/L, respectively, the average bromate concentrations of SP1 and SP2 were 59.4 μg/L and 68.3 μg/L. Estimated chronic-toxic health risks of accidental ingestion of pool water during swimming (between 10-3 and 10-1) were lower than the threshold level (‘1’). Although the carcinogenic risks in central tendency scenario (<10-6) indicate negligible risks for swimmers, worst case scenario indicates carcinogenic risks (medians were ranged from 1.61×10-6 to 9.42×10-6) for highly exposed specific swimmer groups. Bromate accumulation in swimming pools needs attention for mitigating the health risks for swimmers.

Keywords

• Swimming
• Pool water
• Bromide
• Bromate
• Health risk assessment

References

1. T.C. Gençlik ve Spor Bakanlığı, https://yuzmebilmeyenkalmasin.gsb.gov.tr/ “Yüzme bilmeyen kalmasın projesi,” 2019. [Turkish]
2. J. Lee, M.J. Jun, M.H. Lee, M.H. Lee, S.-W. Eom, and K.D. Zoh, “Production of various disinfection byproducts in indoor swimming pool waters treated with different disinfection methods,” International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, Vol. 213, pp. 465–474, 2010. [CrossRef]
3. C. Schmalz, F. H. Frimmel, and C. Zwiener, “Trichloramine in swimming pools. Formation and mass transfer,” Water Research, Vol. 45, pp. 26812690, 2011. [CrossRef]
4. S. Chowdhury, K. Alhooshani, and T. Karanfil, “Disinfection byproducts in swimming pool: occurrences, implications and future needs,” Water Research, Vol. 53, pp. 68–109, 2014. [CrossRef]
5. H. Tang, R. J. Ristau, and Y. F. Xie, “Disinfection by-products in swimming pool water: formation, modeling, and control,” Recent Advances in Disinfection By-Products, Vol. 20, pp. 381403, 2015. [CrossRef]
6. K. Ratajczak, and A. Pobudkowska, “Pilot test on pre-swim hygiene as a factor limiting trihalomethane precursors in pool water by reducing organic matter in an operational facility,” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, Vol. 17, Article 7547, 2020. [CrossRef]
7. M. Genisoglu, M. Minaz, E. Tanacan, S. C. Sofuoglu, S. S. Kaplan-Bekaroglu, A. Kanan, N. Ates, T. Sardohan-Koseoglu, N. Ö. Yigit, and B.I. Harman, “Halogenated by-products in chlorinated indoor swimming pools: a long-term monitoring and empirical modeling study,” ACS Omega, Vol. 8(12), pp.1136411372, 2023. [CrossRef]
8. T. Manasfi, B. Coulomb, and J.L. Boudenne, “Occurrence, origin, and toxicity of disinfection byproducts in chlorinated swimming pools: an overview,” International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, Vol. 220, pp. 591–603, 2017. [CrossRef]

9. H. Ilyas, I. Masih, and J. P. Hoek, “An exploration of disinfection by-products formation and governing factors in chlorinated swimming pool water,” Journal of Water and Health, Vol. 16, pp. 861892, 2018. [CrossRef]
10. A. Bernard, M. Nickmilder, C. Voisin, and A. Sardella, “Impact of chlorinated swimming pool attendance on the respiratory health of adolescents,” Pediatrics, Vol. 124, pp. 1110–1118, 2009. [CrossRef]
11. C. P. Weisel, S. D. Richardson, B. Nemery, G. Aggazzotti, E. Baraldi, E. R. Blatchley, B. C. Blount, K. H. Carlsen, P. A. Eggleston, F. H. Frimmel, M. Goodman, G. Gordon, S. A. Grinshpun, D. Heederik, M. Kogevinas, J. S. LaKind, M. J. Nieuwenhuijsen, F. C. Piper, and S. A. Sattar, “Childhood asthma and environmental exposures at swimming pools: state of the science and research recommendations,” Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol. 117, pp. 500–507, 2009. [CrossRef]
12. Resmi Gazete, (Jan 11, 2023), “Yüzme havuzlarının tabi olacağı sağlık esasları hakkında yönetmelik,” Available: http://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2011/12/20111215-13.htm, 2023.
13. R. J. Garcia-Villanova, M. V. Oliveira Dantas Leite, J. M. Hernández Hierro, and S. de Castro Alfageme, C. G. Hernández, “Occurrence of bromate, chlorite and chlorate in drinking waters disinfected with hypochlorite reagents. Tracing their origins,” Science of The Total Environment, Vol. 408, pp. 26162620, 2010. [CrossRef]
14. International Agency for Research on Cancer, (Jan 02, 2023), “Some naturally occurring and synthetic food components, furocoumaris and ultraviolet radiation: potassium bromate. Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic,” https://kohahq.searo.who.int/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=10999
15. M. Siddiqui, G. L. Amy, and R. G. Rice, “Bromate ion formation: a critical review,” American Water Works Association, Vol. 87, pp. 5870, 1995. [CrossRef]
16. R. Michalski, and B. Mathews, “Occurrence of chlorite, chlorate and bromate in disinfected swimming pool water,” Polish Journal of Environmental Studies, Vol. 16, pp. 237241, 2007.
17. W. A. Weaver, J. Li, Y. Wen, J. Johnston, M. R. Blatchley, and E. R. III Blatchley, “Volatile disinfection by-product analysis from chlorinated indoor swimming pools,” Water Research, Vol. 43, pp. 3308–3318, 2009. [CrossRef]
18. C. Liu, U. Von Gunten, and J. P. Croué, “Enhanced bromate formation during chlorination of bromide-containing waters in the presence of CuO: Catalytic disproportionation of hypobromous acid,” Environmental Science & Technology, Vol. 46, pp. 11054–11061, 2012. [CrossRef]
19. L. Fang, Q. Zhu, and J. H. Xu, “The influence of bromate formation by chlorination in drinking water,” Applied Mechanics and Materials, Vol. 675677, pp. 951–954, 2014. [CrossRef]
20. B. Legube, M. M. Bourbigot, A. Bruchet, A. Deguin, A. Montiel, and L. Matia, “Bromide/bromate survey on different European water utilities,” Water Supply: The Review Journal of The International Water Supply Association, Vol. 13, pp. 127138, 1995.
21. S. Bouland, J. P. Duguet, and A. Montiel, “Evaluation of bromate ions level introduced by sodium hypochlorite during post-disinfection of drinking water,” Environmental Technology, Vol. 25, pp. 121125, 2005. [CrossRef]
22. R. J. Bull, and J.A. Cottruvo, “Research strategy for developing key information on bromate's mode of action,” Toxicology, Vol. 221, pp. 135144, 2006. [CrossRef]
23. M. Bolyard, P. Snyder Fair, and D.P. Hautman, “Occurrence of chlorate in hypochlorite solutions used for drinking water disinfection,” Environmental Science & Technology, Vol. 26, pp. 16631665, 1992. [CrossRef]
24. H. S. Weinberg, C. A. Delcomyn, and V. Unnam, “Bromate in chlorinated drinking waters: occurrence and implications for future regulation,” Environmental Science & Technology, Vol. 37, pp. 31043110, 2003. [CrossRef]
25. E. Righi, G. Fantuzzi, G. Predieri, and G. Aggazzotti, “Bromate, chlorite, chlorate, haloacetic acids, and trihalomethanes occurrence in indoor swimming pool waters in Italy,” Microchemical Journal, Vol. 113, pp. 2329, 2014. [CrossRef]
26. World Health Organization, “Guidelines for safe recreational water environments, swimming pools, spas and similar environments, Vol. 2,” World Health Organization, Geneva, 2006.
27. C. S. Sa, R. A. Bonaventura, and I. B. Pereira, “Analysis of haloacetic acids in water and air (aerosols) from indoor swimming pools using HS-SPME/GC/ECD,” Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A, Vol. 47, pp. 176–183, 2012. [CrossRef]
28. C. Röhl, “Bromate in bathing water – a carcinogenic risk?” Toxicology Letters, Vol. 350, pp. S7, 2021. [CrossRef]
29. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. “Standard Methods for the Determination of Anions by Ion Chromatography 23rd ed,” American Public Health Association/American Water Works Association/Water Environment Federatio, Washington DC, USA, 2017.
30. National Center for Environmental Assessment Office of Research and Development U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Exposure factors handbook: 2019 revision,” U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2019
31. O. Neyzi, H. Günöz, A. Furman, R. Bundak, G. Gökçay, F. Darendeliler, and F. Baş, “Türk çocuklarında vücut ağırlığı , boy uzunluğu , baş çevresi ve vücut kitle indeksi referans değerleri,” Çocuk Sağlığı ve Hastalıkları Dergisi, Vol. 51, pp. 1–14, 2008. [Turkish]
32. M. Genisoglu, C. Ergi-Kaytmaz, and S. C.Sofuoglu, “Multi-route–Multi-pathway exposure to trihalomethanes and associated cumulative health risks with response and dose addition,” Journal of Environmental Management, Vol. 233, pp. 823831, 2019. [CrossRef]
33. United States Enviromental Proltection Agency, “Integrated risk information system, https://www.epa.gov/iris, 2022.
34. A. Kanan, “Occurrence and formation of disinfection by-products in indoor swimming pools water,” [Doctorial Thesis], Clemson University, Clemson, 2010.
35. United Nations, “Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. World Population Prospects 2019: Wallchart. Citation: United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division,” United Nations, 2019. [CrossRef]
36. A. Y. S. Mansour, A. Baba, O. Gunduz, C. Şimşek, A. Elçi, A. Murathan, and H. Sözbilir, “Modeling of seawater intrusion in a coastal aquifer of Karaburun Peninsula, western Turkey,” Environmental Earth Sciences, Vol. 76, pp. 1–14, 2017. [CrossRef]
37. W. D’Alessandro, S. Bellomo, F. Parello, L. Brusca, and M. Longo, “Survey on fluoride, bromide and chloride contents in public drinking water supplies in Sicily (Italy),” Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, Vol. 145, pp. 303–313, 2008. [CrossRef]
38. Council Directive 98/83/EC of 3 November 1998 “On the quality of water intended for human consumption,” Document 31998L0083, Official Journal of the European Communities, 1998.
39. Resmi Gazete, (Jan 11 2023), “İnsani tüketim amaçli sular hakkinda yönetmelik. Kurum ve kuruluş yönetmelikleri Tertip:5,” https://www.mevzuat.gov.tr/File/GeneratePdf?mevzuatNo=7510&mevzuatTur=KurumVeKurulusYonetmeligi&mevzuatTertip=5 [Turkish]
40. E. Righi, G. Fantuzzi, G. Predieri, and G. Aggazzotti, “Bromate, chlorite, chlorate, haloacetic acids (HAAs), and trihalomethanes (THMs) determination in indoor swimming pools,” Fifth International Conference Swimming Pool & Spa, pp. 62, 2013. [CrossRef]
41. B. Winid, R. Muszański, and J. Wilkosz, “Modification of disinfection process at a local water treatment plant-Skawina (Poland),” Water, Vol. 14, Article 2924, pp. 127, 2022. [CrossRef]
42. C. Legay, M. J. Rodriguez, R. Sadiq, J. B. Sérodes, P. Levallois, and F. Proulx, “Spatial variations of human health risk associated with exposure to chlorination by-products occurring in drinking water,” Journal of Environmental Management, Vol. 92, pp. 892901, 2011. [CrossRef]
43. BS EN 901:2013, “Chemicals used for treatment of water intended for human consumption-Sodium hypochlorite,” European Standards, 2013.