Spatio-temporal patterns of air quality on commuter lane of the sub-urban area of Yogyakarta, Indonesia

Abstract

Yogyakarta, a city based on culture, education, and tourism, has different commuting activities from other industrialized cities in Indonesia. On the other hand, the city is also dominated by motorcycles, like most cities in Indonesia and Southeast Asia. The movement of commuters by motorcycle affects the instantaneous air quality. In this paper, the results of an investigation of the spatio-temporal pattern of air quality of commuter routes in the suburbs of Yogyakarta are presented. Data were collected through observation by measuring five air quality parameters and vehicle intensity in 10 commuter routes in Yogyakarta. Data were analyzed using GIS analysis using average nearest neighbour, statistical analysis using simple linear regression, and matching analysis referring to The World Air Quality Index and Vianney and Erfianto (2023), supported by descriptive analysis. There are three critical findings from this study. First, air quality varies spatially and temporally, with differences among commuter routes and travel times. Second, the relationship between passing vehicle intensity and air quality is unique. Some positively correlate with linear, exponential, logarithmic, or polynomial relationship properties. Third, poor air quality tends to be found on main routes with high vehicle intensity. In summary, this study provides new insights into air quality patterns concerning commuter traffic in motorcycle-dominated cities in Indonesia.

Keywords

• Air quality
• commuter lane
• sub-urban
• transportation geography

References

1. C. P. Kaneda, “World Population Data-Sheet-Boolet," Climate Vulnerability and Resilience (2nd ed.),” Katalog: 2301024, 2023.
2. J.P. Rodrigue, “The Geography of Transport Systems (3rd ed.),” In the Geography of Transport Systems, 2019. A. Venkatram, and N. Schulte, “The Impact of Highways on Urban Air Quality,” Urban Transportation and Air Pollution, pp. 77–104, 2018.
3. J. Li, P. Wang, and S. Ma, “The Impact of Different Transportation Infrastructures on Urban Carbon Emissions: Evidence from China”, Energy, Article 131041, 2024.
4. B. Sun, C. Fang, X. Liao, X. Guo, and Z. Liu, “The Relationship Between Urbanization and Air Pollution Affected by Intercity Factor Mobility: A Case of the Yangtze River Delta Region,” Environmental Impact Assessment Review, Article 107092, 2023.
5. O. Ghaffarpasand, D. Okure, P. Green, S. Sayyahi, P. Adong, R. Sserunjogi, E. Bainomugisha, and F. D. Pope, “The Impact of Urban Mobility on Air Pollution in Kampala, An Exemplar Sub-Saharan African City,” Atmospheric Pollution Research, Vol. 15(4), Article 102057, 2024.
6. S. Bi, J. Hu, L. Shao, T. Feng, and A. Appolloni, “Can Public Transportation Development Improve Urban Air Quality? Evidence from China,” Urban Climate, Vol. 54, Article 101825, 2024.
7. G. Cao, L. A. Zhou, C. Liu, and J. Zhou, “The Effects of The Entries by Bike-Sharing Platforms on Urban Air Quality,” China Economic Quarterly International, Vol. 3(3), pp. 213–224, 2023.
8. D. Xie, Z. Gou, and X. Gui, “How Electric Vehicles Benefit Urban Air Quality Improvement: A Study in Wuhan,” Science of the Total Environment, Article 167584, 2024.

9. X. Tian, C. An, Z. Chen, and Z. Tian, “Assessing the Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on Urban Transportation and Air Quality in Canada,” Science of the Total Environment, Article 144270, 2021.
10. Y. J. Wong, H. Y. Shiu, J. H. H. Chang, M. C. G. Ooi, H. H. Li, R. Homma, Y. Shimizu, P. T. Chiueh, L. Maneechot, and S. N. M. Nik, “Spatiotemporal Impact of COVID-19 on Taiwan Air Quality in the Absence of a Lockdown: Influence of Urban Public Transportation Use and Meteorological Conditions,” Journal of Cleaner Production, Article 132893, 2022.
11. J. P. Rodrigue, “Case Study: Logistics Zones,” In the Geography of Transport Systems, 2024.
12. H. S. Yunus, “Dinamika Wilayah Peri-Urban Determinan Masa Depan Kota,” Pustaka Pelajar, 2008.
13. Aritenang, A. F, “The Crucial Role of Motorcycle-Based Ride-Hailing Among Commuters: The Case of Jakarta and Bandung in Metropolitan Areas,” Journal of Public Transportation, Vol. 26, Article 100082, 2024.
14. T. Tjahjono, A. Kusuma, and A. Septiawan, “The Greater Jakarta Area Commuters Travelling Pattern,” Transportation Research Procedia, Vol. 47, 2020.
15. T. H. Tran, S. Tanaka, and H. T. Nguyen, “The Heterogeneity in Commuters’ Travel Behaviors Toward Different Types of Ride-Hailing Services: The Case of Hanoi, Vietnam,” Asian Transport Studies, Vol. 10, Article 100126, 2024.
16. A. Ratanawaraha, and S. Chalermpong, “How the Poor Commute in Bangkok, Thailand,” Transportation Research Record, pp. 83–89, Article 2568, 2016.
17. E. Guerra, “Electric Vehicles, Air Pollution, and the Motorcycle City: A Stated Preference Survey of Consumers’ Willingness to Adopt Electric Motorcycles in Solo, Indonesia,” Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, Vol. 68, pp. 52–64, 2019.
18. Y. Sakamoto, K. Shoji, M. T. Bui, T. H. Phạm, T. A. Vu, B. T. Ly, and Y. Kajii, “Air Quality Study in Hanoi, Vietnam in 2015–2016 Based on A One-Year Observation of NOx, O3, CO and A One-Week Observation of VOCs,” Atmospheric Pollution Research, Vol. 9(3), pp. 544–551, 2018.
19. V. T. Tang, N. T. K. Oanh, E. R. Rene, and T. N. Binh, “Analysis of Roadside Air Pollutant Concentrations and Potential Health Risk of Exposure in Hanoi, Vietnam,” Journal of Environmental Science and Health-Part A Toxic/Hazardous Substances and Environmental Engineering, Vol. 55(8), pp. 975–988, 2020.
20. S. T. Leong, S. Muttamara, and P. Laortanakul, “Influence of Benzene Emission from Motorcycle on Bangkok Air Quality,” Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 36(4), pp. 651–661, 2002.
21. E. O. Okokon, P. Taimisto, A. W. Turunen, O. A. Amoda, A. E. Fasasi, L. G. Adeyemi, J. Juutilainen, and T. Lanki, “Particulate Air Pollution and Noise: Assessing Commuter Exposure in Africa’s Most Populous City,” Journal of Transport and Health, Vol. 9, pp. 150–160, 2018.
22. D. H. Huy, N. D. T. Chi, N. X. T. Nam, and T. T. Hien, “Commuter Exposures to In-Transit PM in An Urban City Dominated by Motorcycle: A Case Study in Vietnam,” Atmospheric Pollution Research, Vol. 13(3), Article 101351, 2022.
23. T. N. Quang, N. T. Hue, M. V. Dat, L. K. Tran, T. H. Phi, L. Morawska, and P. K. Thai, “Motorcyclists have Much Higher Exposure to Black Carbon Compared to Other Commuters in Traffic of Hanoi, Vietnam,” Atmospheric Environment, Article 118029, 2021.
24. S. Saksena, T. N. Quang, T. Nguyen, P. N. Dang, and P. Flachsbart, "Commuters’ Exposure to Particulate Matter and Carbon Monoxide in Hanoi, Vietnam,” Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, Vol. 13(3), pp. 206–211, 2008.
25. P. deSouza, R. Lu, P. Kinney, and S. Zheng, “Exposures to Multiple Air Pollutants While Commuting: Evidence from Zhengzhou, China,” Atmospheric Environment, Article 118168, 2021.
26. R. K. Ayyakkannu, J. Subbaian, M. Pandian, and D. L. Iruthayaraj, “Commuter Exposure to Fine Particulate Matter in Private Road Transport Modes in Salem, India,” Thermal Science, Vol. 26(2), pp. 1695–1708, 2022.
27. P. Kumar, and N. C. Gupta, “Commuter Exposure to Inhalable, Thoracic and Alveolic Particles in Various Transportation Modes in Delhi,” Science of the Total Environment, pp. 535–541, 2016.
28. K. J. Chuang, L. Y. Lin, K. F. Ho, and C. T. Su, “Traffic-Related PM2.5 Exposure and Its Cardiovascular Effects Among Healthy Commuters in Taipei, Taiwan,” Atmospheric Environment: X, Vol. 7, Article 100084, 2020.
29. H. C. Li, P. T. Chiueh, S. P. Liu, and Y. Y. Huang, “Assessment of Different Route Choice on Commuters’ Exposure to Air Pollution in Taipei, Taiwan,” Environmental Science and Pollution Research, Vol. 24(3), pp. 3163–3171, 2017.
30. B. Y. Chiu, “Does the Bus Rapid Transit Reduce Motorcycle Use? Evidence from the Jakarta Metropolitan Area, Indonesia,” Case Studies on Transport Policy, Vol. 10(3), pp. 1767–1774, 2022.
31. B. Y. Chiu, “Does Mass Rapid Transit Reduce Motorcycle Travel? Evidence from Taipei, Taiwan,” Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, Article 103844, 2023.
32. Y. H. Ho, T. C. Hsiao, and A. Y. Chen, “Emission Analysis of Electric Motorcycles and Assessment of Emission Reduction with Fleet Electrification,” IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems, Vol. 24(12), pp. 15369–15378, 2023.
33. BPS, “Statistik Komuter DKI Jakarta Hasil Survei Komuter DKI Jakarta 2017,” 2017.
34. BPS, “Statistik Komuter Bandung Raya Hasil Survei Komuter Bandung Raya dan Gerbangkertosusila 2017,” 2017.
35. BPS, “Statistik Komuter Jabodetabek Hasil Survey Komuter Jabodetabek 2019,” 2019.
36. BPS, “Statistik Komuter Jabodetabek Hasil Survey Komuter Jabodetabek 2023,” 2023.
37. The World Air Quality Index Project, “2020 World Air Quality Report: Region & City PM2.5 Ranking,” IQAir, pp. 1–41, 2020.
38. A. B. Vianney, and B. Erfianto, “Time Series On-Board Air Quality Index,” pp. 23–36, 2023.
39. A. Ashari, and S. Purwantara, “Bentanglahan Vulkanik Indonesia (Issue April),” 2022.
40. A. Ashari, “Geomorphology of the Southern Flank of Merapi Volcano in Relation,” pp. 183–192, 2017.
41. S. Purwantara, A. Ashari, and M. H. B. Ibrahim, “The Characteristics of Infiltration on The Southern Flank of Merapi Volcanic Plain, Yogyakarta, Indonesia,” International Journal of GEOMATE, Vol. 19(74), pp. 201–209, 2020.
42. S. Purwantara, A. Ashari, and S. T. J. Putro, "The Relationship Between Landscape and Meteorological Parameters on COVID-19 Risk in A Small-Complex Region of Yogyakarta, Indonesia,” Bulletin of Geography, Physical Geography Series, Vol. 21(1), pp. 27–43, 2021.
43. Special Region of Yogyakarta Transportation Service, “Transportasi Dalam Angka 2021,” 2021.
44. Y. C. Government, “Jumlah Kendaraan Bermotor di Kota Yogyakarta Tahun 2022,” 2023.
45. E. Guerra, and G. Duranton, “Transport Modes and Cities,” In International Encyclopedia of Transportation: Volume 1-7, Vol. 5, 2021.
46. T. Li, Y. Guo, Y. Liu, J. Wang, Q. Wang, Z. Sun, M. Z. He, and X. Shi, “Estimating Mortality Burden Attributable to Short-Term PM2.5 Exposure: A National Observational Study in China,” Environment International, pp. 245–251, 2019.
47. K. Huang, F. Liang, X. Yang, F. Liu, J. Li, Q. Xiao, J. Chen, X. Liu, J. Cao, C. Shen, L. Yu, F. Lu, X. Wu, L. Zhao, X. Wu, Y. Li, D. Hu, J. Huang, Y. Liu, and D. Gu, “Long Term Exposure to Ambient Fine Particulate Matter and Incidence of Stroke: Prospective Cohort Study from the China-PAR Project,” The BMJ, pp. 1–9, 2019.
48. C. Yu, Y. Deng, Z. Qin, C. Yang, and Q. Yuan, “Traffic Volume and Road Network Structure: Revealing Transportation-Related Factors on PM2.5 Concentrations,” Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, Article 124, 2023.
49. L. L. Sloss, and I. M. Smith, “PM10 and PM2.5: An International Perspective,” Fuel Processing Technology, pp. 127–141, 2000.
50. C. Fulton, “Urban Exploration: Traces of The Secretly Documented, Decayed, and Disused,” Library Trends, Vol. 69(3), pp. 556 – 572, 2021.
51. L. He, Y. Duan, Y. Zhang, Q. Yu, J. Huo, J. Chen, H. Cui, Y. Li, and W. Ma, “Effects of VOC Emissions from Chemical Industrial Parks on Regional O3-PM2.5 Compound Pollution in the Yangtze River Delta,” Science of the Total Environment, Article 906, 2024.
52. Y. Gao, H. Pan, L. Cao, C. Lu, Q. Yang, X. Lu, H. Ding, S. Li, and T. Zhao, “Effects of Anthropogenic Emissions and Meteorological Conditions on Diurnal Variation of Formaldehyde (HCHO) in the Yangtze River Delta, China,” Atmospheric Pollution Research, Vol. 14(6), Article 101779, 2023.
53. V. J. Konopinski, and J. B. Upham, “Commuter Exposure to Atmospheric Lead,” Archives of Environmental Health, Vol. 14(4), pp. 589–593, 1967.
54. C. C. Chan, J. D. Spengler, H. Ozkaynak, and M. Lefkopoulou, “Commuter Exposures to VOCs in Boston, Massachusetts,” Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association, Vol. 41(12), pp. 1594–1600, 1991.
55. L. Y. Chan, and Y. M. Liu, “Carbon Monoxide Levels in Popular Passenger Commuting Modes Traversing Major Commuting Routes in Hong Kong,” Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 35(15), pp. 2637–2646, 2001.
56. N. Shiohara, A. A. F. Bremauntz, S. B. Jimenez, and Y. Yanagisawa, “The Commuters’ Exposure to Volatile Chemicals and Carcinogenic Risk in Mexico City,” Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 39(19), pp. 3481–3489, 2005.
57. A. V. Vellopoulou, and M. R. Ashmore, “in the City of Athens,” Vol. 24(7), pp. 713–720, 1998.
58. J. Zheng, Z. Qiu, H. O. Gao, and B. Li, “Commuter PM Exposure and Estimated Life-Expectancy Loss Across Multiple Transportation Modes in Xi’an, China,” Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, Article 112117, 2021.
59. K. N. Dirks, J. Y. T. Wang, A. Khan, and C. Rushton, “Air Pollution Exposure in Relation to the Commute to School: A Bradford UK Case Study,” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, Vol. 13(11), pp. 1–10, 2016.
60. A. Namdeo, S. Ballare, H. Job, and D. Namdeo, “Commuter Exposure to Air Pollution in Newcastle, U.K., and Mumbai, India,” Journal of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste, Vol. 20(4), pp. 1–15, 2016.
61. A. Embiale, F. Zewge, B. S. Chandravanshi, and E. S. Demessie, “Commuter Exposure to Particulate Matters and Total Volatile Organic Compounds at Roadsides in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia,” International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 16(8), pp. 4761–4774, 2019.
62. Q. Miao, M. Bouchard, D. Chen, M. W. Rosenberg, and K. J. Aronson, “Commuting Behaviors and Exposure to Air Pollution in Montreal, Canada,” Science of the Total Environment, pp. 193–198, Article 508, 2015.
63. A. S. Ginzburg, V. A. Semenov, E. G. Semutnikova, M. A. Aleshina, P. V. Zakharova, and E. A. Lezina, “Impact of COVID-19 Lockdown on Air Quality in Moscow,” Doklady Earth Sciences, Vol. 495(1), pp. 862–866, 2020.
64. V. Kazakos, J. Taylor, and Z. Luo, “Impact of COVID-19 Lockdown on NO2 and PM2.5 Exposure Inequalities in London, UK,” Environmental Research, Vol. 198(2), Article 111236, 2021.
65. S. Dahech, M. A. Abdmouleh, and S. Lagmiri, “Spatiotemporal Variation of Air Quality (PM and NO2) in Southern Paris during COVID-19 Lockdown Periods,” Atmosphere, Vol. 13(2), 2022.
66. C. Liu, Z. Huang, J. Huang, C. Liang, L. Ding, X. Lian, X. Liu, L. Zhang, and D. Wang, “Comparison of PM2.5 and CO2 Concentrations in Large Cities of China during the COVID-19 Lockdown,” Advances in Atmospheric Sciences, Vol. 39(6), pp. 861–875, 2022.
67. G. Thomas, J. Thomas, R. S. Devika, A. Krishnan, A. V. Mathew, and A. J. Nair, “Impact of COVID-19 Lockdown on Ambient Air Quality in the Southwest Coastal Urban Regions of India,” Aerosol Science and Engineering, Vol. 7(3), pp. 303–314, 2023.
68. M. Ravina, Z. S. Esfandabadi, D. Panepinto, and M. Zanetti, “Traffic-Induced Atmospheric Pollution during the COVID-19 Lockdown: Dispersion Modeling Based on Traffic Flow Monitoring in Turin, Italy,” Journal of Cleaner Production, Article 128425, 2021.
69. C. C. Lim, H. Kim, M. J. R. Vilcassim, G. D. Thurston, T. Gordon, L. C. Chen, K. Lee, M. Heimbinder, and S. Y. Kim, “Mapping Urban Air Quality Using Mobile Sampling with Low-Cost Sensors and Machine Learning in Seoul, South Korea,” Environment International, Article 105022, 2019.
70. Z. Ferenczi, A. F. Sremac, and B. Szintai, “Understanding Air Quality under Different Weather and Climate Conditions in the Pannonian Basin,” Background material for H2020-TWINN-2015: SERBian-Austrian-Italian (SAI) Partnership FORcing EXCELLence in Ecosystem Research View Project COST Action 734 (Issue January), 2017.
71. C. Sun, W. Zhang, X. Fang, X. Gao, and M. Xu, “Urban Public Transport and Air Quality: Empirical Study of China Cities,” Energy Policy, Article 110998, 2019.
72. A. L. Ginting, dan M. Mirwan, “Analisis Kualitas Udara Berdasarkan Volume Lalu Lintas di Jalan Kedung Cowek Surabaya,” INSOLOGI: Jurnal Sains Dan Teknologi, Vol. 1(5), pp. 603–613, 2022.
73. N. Kemala, A. Gani, dan Mahidin, “Jurnal Penelitian Transportasi Darat,” Vol. 20(1), pp. 17–32, 2018.
74. D. R. Nurmaningsih, “Analisis Kualitas Udara Ambien Akibat Lalu Lintas Kendaraan Bermotor di Kawasan Coyudan, Surakarta,” Al-Ard: Jurnal Teknik Lingkungan, Vol. 3(2), pp. 46–53, 2018.
75. R. Wirosoedarmo, B. Suharto, and D. E. Proborini, "Analyze the Effects of Wind Speed and Vehicles Number to Carbon Monoxide at Arjosari Terminal,” Jurnal Sumberdaya Alam dan Lingkungan, Vol. 7(10), pp. 57–64, 2020.
76. D. R. Suhadi, dan A. S. Febrina, “Pedoman Teknis Penyusunan Inventarisasi Emisi Pencemar Udara di Perkotaan,” Pedoman Teknis Penyusunan Inventarisasi Emisi Pencemar Udara di Perkotaan, 2013.
77. D. Y. Damara, I. W. Wardhana, dan E. Sutrisno, “Analisis Dampak Kualitas Udara Karbon Monoksida Akibat Kegiatan Car Free Day Menggunakan Program Caline4 dan Surfer,” Jurnal Teknik Lingkungan, Vol. 6(1), pp. 1–14, 2017.
78. N. Hodijah, B. Amin, dan M. Mubarak, “Estimasi Beban Pencemar dari Emisi Kendaraan Bermotor di Ruas Jalan Kota Pekanbaru,” Dinamika Lingkungan Indonesia, Vol. 1(2), Artikel 71, 2014.
79. M. Zimakowska-Laskowska, and P. Laskowski, “Comparison of Pollutant Emissions from Various Types of Vehicles,” Combustion Engines, Vol. 197(2), pp. 139-145, 2024.
80. http://epa.gov/transportation-air-pollution-and-climate-change/carbon-pollution-transportation, The EPA website. [Online]. Available: (2024)
81. https://www.iea.org/energy-system/transport#tracking, The IEA website. [Online]. Available: (2024)
82. M. Leroutier, and P. Quirion, “Air Pollution and CO2 from Daily Mobility: Who Emits and Why? Evidence from Paris,” Energy Economics, Vol. 109, pp. 105941, 2022.
83. C. Li, and S. Managi, “Contribution of On-Road Transportation to PM2.5,” Scientific Reports, Vol. 11(1), pp. 1–12, 2021.
84. https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/emissions-of-air-pollutants/emissions-of-air-pollutants-in-the-uk-particulate-matter-pm10-and-pm25, The Department for Environtment Food & Rural Affairs website. [Online]. Available: (2024)
85. R. M. Harrison, R. A. Deacon, and M. R. Jones, “Sources and Process Affecting Concentration of PM10 and PM 2.5 Particulate Mater In Birmingham (U.K.),” Atmospheric Environtment, Vol. 31(24), pp. 4103-4117, 1997.
86. Z. Li, P. K. Hopke, L. Husain, S. Qureshi, V. A. Dutkiewicz, J. J. Schwab, F. Drewnick, and K. L. Demerjian, “Sources of Fine Particle Composition in New York City,” Atmos. Environ, Vol. 38, pp. 6521-6529, 2004.
87. X. Querol, A. Alastuey, C. R. Ruiz, B. Artinano, H. C. Hansson, R. M. Harrison, E. Buringh, H. M. T. Brink, M. Lutz, P. Bruckmann, P. Straehl, and J. Schneider, “Speciation and Origin of PM10 and PM2.5 in Selected European Cities,” Atmos. Environ, Vol. 38(6547), pp. 6555, 2004.
88. https://www.epa.gov/report-environtment, The EPA website. [Online]. Available: (2018)
89. P. Lestari, M. K. Arrohman, S. Damayanti, and Z. Klimont, “Emissions and Spatial Distribution of Air Pollutants from Anthropogenic Sources in Jakarta,” Atmospheric Pollution Research, Vol. 13(9), pp. 1-15, 2022.