Sustainable color, sulfate and phosphate removal from vegetable oil refinery wastewater using snail shell waste extracted-chitin-chitosan mixed with alum: Kinetics, thermodynamics, equilibrium and toxicity assessment of used adsorbents on the growth performance of maize

Year 2025, Volume: 8 Issue: 3, 699 - 723, 30.09.2025

Cornelius Tsamo , Goufdour Alexis

https://doi.org/10.35208/ert.1566585

Abstract

Direct discharged of vegetable oil refinery wastewater without treatment can cause severe environmental pollution, corrosion and clogging of pipes. This work is aimed at investigating the use of snail shell extracted chitin and chitosan fortified with alum in removing color, sulfate and phosphate from vegetable oil refinery wastewater, monitoring the pH, and testing the toxicity of the used materials on the growth performance of maize. Chitin and chitosan with good adsorbent properties were produced from snail shells. The spent chitin/alum and chitosan/alum were recycled and their toxicities on the growth performance of maize tested. The studied wastewater had pH of 10.40, sulfate and phosphate concentrations of 3100 and 1561.3 mg/L respectively. Maximum removal capacities for sulfate and phosphate of 842.54 and 728.07 mg/g were respectively obtained for chitin, and respectively 934.97 and 728.00 mg/L for chitosan against color removal of 0.96 and 0.95 Absorbance/g respectively on chitin and chitosan. Nearly 100% of color and phosphate were removed by chitin and chitosan systems for all tested parameters against a maximum of 84% for sulfate by chitosan at pH 10 and 80% for chitin at pH 4. From Pseudo-second order kinetics, phosphate and sulfate removal were faster on chitin than chitosan while color removal was faster on chitosan than chitin. Recycled adsorbents enhanced maize germination and survival than the control where they were absent. The use of chitin and chitosan fortified with appropriate amount of alum produces treated vegetable oil refinery effluent with acceptable characteristic for discharge and other uses in a low cost process requiring no electricity, and the recycled alum fortified materials are not toxic to plant growth, ensuring clean environment and generation of more revenue.

Keywords

Vegetable oil wastewater , phosphate , sulfate , color , chitin , chitosan

References

• T. Ahmada, T. Belwala, L. Lia, S. Ramola, R.M. Aadil, Abdullaha, Y. Yanxun Xua, L. Luo Zisheng, “Utilization of wastewater from edible oil industry, turning waste into valuable products: A review,” Trends in Food Science & Technology, Vol. 99, pp. 21–33, 2020.
• T. Turna, Y.S. Yildiz, “Treatment of vegetable oil industry wastewaters with coagulation-flocculation methods, DUJE (Dicle University Journal of Engineering), Vol. 15, pp. 533-540, 2024.
• O. Dkhissi, A. El Hakmaoui, S. Souabi, M. Chatoui, A. Jada, M. Akssira, “Treatment of vegetable oil refinery wastewater by coagulation-flocculation process using the cactus as a bio-flocculant,” Journal of Materials and Environmental Science, Vol. 99, pp. 18-25, 2018.
• D. Kaya, Y. Hung, Treatment of vegetable oil refining wastes, Kaya, D, and Hung, YT (2020). “Treatment of vegetable oil refining wastes. In: "Evolutionary Progress in Science,” Technology, Engineering, Arts, and Mathematics (STEAM)", Wang, Lawrence K. and Tsao, Hungping (editors). Volume 2, Number 2, February 2020; 80 pages. Lenox Institute Press, Newtonville, NY, 12128-0405, USA. No. STEAM-VOL2-NUM2-FEB2020; ISBN 978-0-9890870-3-2. US Department of Commerce, National Technical Information Service, 5301 Shawnee Road, Alexandria, VA 22312, USA, 2020.
• D. Dohare, R. Meshram, “Biological treatment of edible oil refinery wastewater using activated sludge Process and Sequencing Batch Reactors - A Review,” Journal of Engineering Sciences & Research Technology, Vol. 3(12), pp. 251-260, 2014.
• S. Sharma, A.K. Sharma, S. Verma, H.S. Dodiya, “Treatment of edible oil refinery waste water by using chemical and biological process,” Journal of Engineering Sciences & Research Technology, 3(9), pp. 115-120, 2014
• M.G. Devi, Z.S. Shinoon Al-Hashmi, G.C. Sekhar, “Treatment of vegetable oil mill effluent using crab shell chitosan as adsorbent,” International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 9, pp. 713–718, 2012.
• A.M.A. Pintor, A.G. Martins, R.S. Souza, V.J.P. Vilar, C.M.S. Botelho, R.A.R. Boaventura, “Treatment of vegetable oil refinery wastewater by sorption of oil and grease onto regranulated cork - A study in batch and continuous mode,” Chemical Engineering Journal, 2015.
• P.S. Dhanke, S. Wagh, “Treatment of vegetable oil refinery wastewater with biodegradability index improvement,” Materials Today: Proceedings, xxx (xxxx) xxx
• O. Hartal, A. Madinzi, S.K. Rifi, C. Haddaji , R.A. Kurniawan, A. Anouzla, S. Salah Souabi, “Optimization of coagulation-flocculation process for wastewater treatment from vegetable oil refineries using chitosan as a natural flocculant,” Environmental Nanotechnology, Monitoring & Management, Vol. 2024 (22), pp. 100957, 2024.
• O. Hartal , S. Khattabi Rifi, M. Chatoui, C. Haddaji, M. Abdelaziz, A. Pala, S. Souabi, Combined natural flotation and chemical precipitation for the treatment of vegetable oil refinery wastewater. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 2024 (21), pp.7295–7306, 2024.
• S.K. Rifi, S. Souabi, L. El Fels, A. Driouich, Madinzi, I. Ilham Nassri , M. Hafidi, “Moringa oleifera organic coagulant to eliminate pollution in olive oil mill wastewater,” Environmental Nanotechnology, Monitoring & Management, Vol. 20, pp. 100871.
• J. Jumadia, A. Kamaria, N.A. Rahima, N. Yusof, W. Sutapac, Sunardi, “Ferrihydrite-chitosan nanocomposite as a recyclable flocculant for palm oil mill effluent,” Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences & Engineering), Vol. 86, pp. 169-182. 2024.
• N. Nouj, N. Hafid, N. El Alem, I.I. Buciscanu, S.S. Maier, P. Samoila, G. Soreanu, I. Cretescu, C.D. Stan, “Valorization of β-Chitin Extraction Byproduct from Cuttlefish Bone and Its Application in Food Wastewater Treatment,” Materials, Vol. 15, pp. 2803, 2022.
• A.A. Ngenwi, J.M. Mafeni, K.A. Etchu, F.T. Oben, “Characteristics of snail farmers and constraints to increased production in West and Central Africa,” African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 4, pp. 274-278, 2010.
• E. Miegoue, H.M. Kuietche, F. Tendonkeng, J. Lemoufouet, N.P. Azemafac, E.T. Pamo, “Snail Production System in Fako Division, South West Region-Cameroon. International Journal of Recent Innovations in Academic Research, Vol. 3(1), pp. 1-14, 2019.
• J.R. Cobbinah, A. Vink, B. Onwuka, “Snail Farming in West Africa, Production, processing and marketing, A Practical guide,” Agrodok 47, 2008 http://videa.ca/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Snail-farming-manual.pdf
• R.R. Mohamed, “Chitin and chitosan as adsorbents,” Natural Polymers-Based Green Adsorbents for Water Treatment, Chapter 3, pp.73-91, 2021.
• Investir au cameroun, https://www.investiraucameroun.com/economie/2204-16275-avec-sa-marque-diamaor-la-sodecoton-controle-25-du-marche-des-huiles-raffinees-au-cameroun, 2021.
• P. Samoila, A.C. Humelnicu, M. Ignat, C. Cojocaru, V. Harabagiu, “Chitin and Chitosan for Water Purification,” DOI: 10.1002/9781119450467.ch17 BOOk Chapter in Chitin and Chitosan: Properties and Applications, First Edition. Edited by Lambertus A.M. van den Broek and Carmen G. Boeriu, John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2020.
• P.V. Atheena, R. Basawa, R. Raval, “Advancing wastewater treatment: chitin and derivatives for PPCP contaminant mitigation,” Polymer Bulletin (2024) Vol. 81, pp. 14307–14336, 2024.
• T.S. Vo, M.M. Hossain, H.M. Jeong, K. Kim, “Heavy metal removal applications using adsorptive membranes,” Nano Convergence, (2020) Vol. 7, pp. 36, 2020.
• T.S. Vo, P. P. Chit , V.H. Nguyen, T. Hoang , K.M. Lwin, T.T. B. C. Vo, B. Jeon , S. Han , J. Lee, Y. Park, K. Kim, “A comprehensive review of chitosan-based functional materials: From history to specific applications,” International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, Vol. 281, pp. 136243, 2024.
• T.S. Vo, · K.M. Lwin, K. Kim, “Recent developments of nano‑enhanced composite membranes designed for water/wastewater purification—a review,” Advanced Composites and Hybrid Materials, Vol. 7, pp.127, 2024.
• T.S. Vo, “Progress and expansions of chitosan-graphene oxide hybrid networks utilizing as adsorbents and their organic dye removal performances: A short review,” Journal of the Turkish Chemical Society Section A: Chemistry, Vol. 8, pp.1121–36, 2021.
• J.N. Edokpayi, J.O. Odiyo, E.O. Popoola, O.S. Alayande, T.A.M. Msagati, “Synthesis and Characterization of Biopolymeric Chitosan Derived from Land Snail Shells and Its Potential for Pb2+ Removal from Aqueous Solution,” Materials, Vol. 8, pp. 8630–8640, 2015.
• R.W. Coughlin, M.R. Deshaie, E.M. Davis, “Preparation of chitosan for heavy metal removal,” Environmental Progress & Sustainable Energy, Vol. 9, pp. 35–39, 1990.
• C. Tsamo, E.F. Zama, N.E. Yerima, A.N.M. Fuh, “Comparing the Coagulation Performance of Rice Husk, Cypress Leaves, and Eucalyptus Leaves Powders with That of Alum in Improving the Turbidity and pH of Some Local Water Sources in Bamenda, Cameroon,’ International Journal of Chemical Engineering, Vol. 2021, Article ID 6858936, 12 pages, 2021.
• C. Tsamo, J.M. Dangwang Dikdim, P.D. Estelle, “Comparative study on the removal of a local scrap iron tannery made dye from wastewater using alum and rice husk, Ain Shams Engineering Journal, Vol. 14, pp. 102071, 2023.
• T.S. Vo, T.T.B.C. Vo, “Graphene oxide-covered melamine foam utilizing as a hybrid foam toward organic dye removal and recyclability,” Progress in Natural Science: Materials International, Vol. 32, pp. 296–303, 2022.
• T.S. Vo, T.T.B.C. Vo, “Surface characterization of polyimide and polyethylene terephthalate membranes toward plasma and UV treatments,” Progress in Natural Science: Materials International, Vol. 32, pp. 314–327, 2022.
• T.S. Vo, T.T.B.C. Vo, T. S. Nguyen, N. D. Pham, “Incorporation of hydroxyapatite in crosslinked gelatin/chitosan/poly(vinylalcohol) hybrids utilizing as reinforced composite sponges, and their water absorption ability,” Progress in Natural Science: Materials International, Vol. 31, pp. 664–671, 2021.
• T.S. Vo, M.M. Hossain, J. Lee, J. Suhr, K. Kim, “Crosslinked 3D porous composite foams as adsorbents for efficient organic dye removal,” Environmental Technology & Innovation, Vol. 29, pp. 102986, 2023.
• A. Paltahe, T. Cornelius, A. Wahabou, “Study on Physico-Chemical Parameters of Wastewater Effluents from Cotton Development Plant of Maroua-Cameroon”, Journal of Pure and Applied Chemistry Research, Vol. 7, pp. 230-238, 2018.
• P.D. Djantio, C. Tsamo, M.R.S. Topet, F.T. Matsinkou, B.B. Loura, “Utilisation of waste from the production of millet derived local drink as adsorbent for phosphate removal from aqueous solution,” Indian Chemical Engineer, Vol. 61, pp. 309-325, 2019.
• J.M. Dangwang Dikdim, G.V. Djinsi, C. Tsamo, “Batch mode treatment of wastewater from the Maroua artisanal tannery using silica extracted from rice husks and silica/sand mixture,” Equilibrium Journal of Chemical Engineering, Vol. 6, pp. 1–12, 2022.
• C. Tsamo, A.H. Zangue, E.E. Herbaud, S.T.D. Nchang, “Investigating the potential of using tannery process solid hair waste for spent engine and vegetable oils removal from water and toxicity assessment using maize,” Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Vol. 8, pp. 100412, 2023.
• C. Tsamo, G.D. Kidwang, D.C. Dahaina, “Removal of Rhodamine B from aqueous solution using silica extracted from rice husk,” SN Applied Sciences, Vol. 2 pp. 256, 2020.
• D. Rallet, A. Paltahe, C. Tsamo, B. Loura, “Synthesis of clay-biochar composite for glyphosate removal from aqueous solution,” Heliyon, Vol. 8, pp. e09112, 2022.
• J.J. Folefack, “Comparing the benefits between producing maize for seeds or consumption in Cameroon,” Tropicultura, Vol. 35, pp. 87-101, 2017.
• I.N. Manu, D.N. Tarla, G.F. Chefor, “Effects of improved maize (Zea mays L.) varieties on household food security in the North West Region of Cameroon,” Scholarly Journal of Agricultural Science, Vol. 4, pp. 265-272, 2014.
• T.E. Epule, V. Poirier, D. Etongo, J. Andriamasinoro, “Identifying yield and growing season precipitation gaps for maize and millet in Cameroon,” Journal of Water and Climate Change, Vol. 15, pp. 499, 2024.
• H. Rastia, K. Parivar, J. Bahararac, M. Iranshahid, F. Namvar, “Chitin from the Mollusc Chiton: Extraction, Characterization and Chitosan Preparation,” Iranian Journal of Pharmaceutical Research, Vol. 16, pp. 366-379, 2017.
• S. Tertsegha, P.I. Akubor, A.A. Iordekighir, K. Christopher, O.O. Okike, “Extraction and Characterization of Chitosan from Snail Shells (Achatinafulica),” Journal of Food Quality and Hazards Control, Vol. 11, pp. 186-196, 2024.
• R. Ouafi, M. Asri, A. Omor, M. Taleb, Z. Zakia Rais, “Snail Shells Adsorbent for Copper Removal from Aqueous Solutions and the Production of Valuable Compounds,” Journal of Chemistry, Vol. 2021, Article ID 9537680, 15 pages, 2021.
• M. Kimia, M.H. Hamdi, “Direct extraction of chitosan from snail shells by natural deep eutectic solvent,” Current Chemistry Letters, Vol. 12, pp. 275–280, 2023.
• E.I. Akpan, O.P. Gbenebor, S.O. Adeosun, “Synthesis and characterisation of chitin from periwinkle (Tympanotonus fusatus (L.)) and snail (Lissachatina fulica (Bowdich)) shells,” International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, Vol. 106, pp. 1080–1088, 2018.
• J. Coates, “Interpretation of Infrared Spectra, a practical approach. In Encyclopedia of Analytical Chemistry; Meyers, R.A., Ed.; John Wiley & Sons Ltd: Chichester, UK, 10815–10837, 2000.
• N.S. Thillai, N. Kalyanasundaram, S. Ravi, “Extraction and Characterization of Chitin and Chitosan from Achatinodes,” Natural Products Chemistry & Research, Vol. 5, pp. 1000281, 2017.
• N. Azmi, S. S. M. Lock, N. T. Berghuis, A. Sarwono, N. L. Zahra, A. R. Sharjeel Waqas, A. Salam Farooqi, “Influence of synthesis approach and formulation on the physicochemical properties of chitin and chitosan from Black Soldier Fly,” Results in Engineering, Vol. 23. pp. 102401, 2024.
• S.A. Entsar, S.A.N. Khaled, Z.E. Maher, “Extraction and characterization of chitin and chitosan from local sources,” Bioresourc Technology, Vol. 99, pp. 1359–1367, 2008.
• S.K. Dewangan, D.N. Toppo, A. Kujur, “Investigating the Impact of pH Levels on Water Quality: An Experimental Approach,” International Journal for Research in Applied Science & Engineering Technology, Vol. 11, pp. 756-759, 2023.
• C. Tsamo, G.P. Kofa, L. “Astaharam, Physico-chemical characterization and zero valent iron treatment of Borehole water of Maroua-Cameroon,” Journal of Environment and Ecology, Vol. 10, pp. 16-27, 2019.
• C.N. Nweke, J.T. Nwabanne, P. K. Igbokwe, “Kinetics of batch anaerobic digestion of vegetable oil wastewater,” Open Journal of Water Pollution and Treatment, Vol. 1, pp. 1–10, 2014.
• J. Ojeda, P. Baeza, M. Goddard, M. Fernanda, P. de Voogt (ed.), Sulfur or Pollen? Chemical, Biological, and Toxicological Basis for the Correct Risk Communication of Urban Yellow Dust Deposition. In: de Voogt, P. (eds) Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology Volume 250. Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, vol 250. Springer, Cham. 2020.
• A. Thiam, A.B. Sarr, S.M. Sarr, “Characterizations of Drinking Water Quality for Populations of Hann Bel-Air (Dakar, Senegal),” Journal of Water Resource and Protection, Vol. 12, pp. 898-909, 2020.
• M. Jaishankar T. Tseten, N. Anbalagan, B. B. Mathew, K. N. Beeregowda, “Toxicity, mechanism and health effects of some heavy metals,” Interdisciplinary Toxicology, Vol. 7(2), pp. 60–72, 2014
• Saowapak Thammasane and Thaniya Kaoso, mpact of Chemical Coagulants for Oscillatoria sp. Removal from Raw Water on Chemical Coagulation Process, American Journal of Environmental Sciences, 14 (6): 257-265, 2018.
• O. Dkhissi, A. El Hakmaoui, M. Chatoui, R. Bouyakhsass, H. Bakraouy, T.A. Kurniawan, A. Anouzla, A. Jada, S. Souabi, “Vegetable oil refinery wastewater treatment by using the cactus as a bio-flocculant in the coagulation-flocculation process,” Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, Vol. 234, pp. 322, 2023.
• M.A. Diab, A. Zaki El-Sonbati, M.M. Al-Halawany, D.M. Diaa Bader, “Thermal Stability and Degradation of Chitosan Modified by Cinnamic Acid,” Open Journal of Polymer Chemistry, Vol. 2, pp. 14-20, 2012.
• S.O. Adeosun, O.P. Gbenebor, E.I. Akpan, S.A. Olaleye, “Characterization of Chitin Synthesized from Snail Shell.” In: TMS T. (eds) TMS 2017 146th Annual Meeting & Exhibition Supplemental Proceedings. The Minerals, Metals & Materials Series. Springer, Cham, ((2017).
• C.C.Wei, I.K. Pathiraja, E. Fabry, K. Schafer, N. Schimp, T.P. Hu, L.P. Norcio, “Removal of Acid Yellow 25 from Aqueous Solution by Chitin Prepared from Waste Snow Crab Legs,” Journal of Encapsulation and Ad-sorption Sciences, Vol. 8, pp. 139-155, 2018.
• S. Schwarz, C. Steinbach, D. Schwarz, M. Mende, R. Boldt, “Chitosan—The Application of a Natural Polymer against Iron Hydroxide Deposition,” American Journal of Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 7, pp. 623-632, 2016.
• A. Moret, J. Rubio, “Sulphate and molybdate ions uptake by chitin-based shrimp shells,” Minerals Engineering, Vol. 16, pp. 715–722, 2023.
• Z. Tiana, T. Feng, G. Yang, T. Zhao, L. Wang, “Removal of sulfate from aqueous solution by magnetic chitosan microspheres,” Desalination and Water Treatment, Vol. 161, pp. 293–303, 2019.
• A. Moret, J. Rubio, “Sulphate and Molybdate Ions Uptake by Chitin-Based Shrimp Shells”, Minerals Engineering. Vol. 16, pp. 715–722, 2003.
• J. Xue, Y. Guo, Q. Bi, W. Mao, J. Li, “study on the adsorption of sulfate ions onto cross-linked chitosan,” Modern Physics Letters B, Vol. 27, pp. 1341031 (7 pages), 2013.
• C. Tsamo, D.J.H. Tchouanyo, D.S. Meali, “Treatment of Red Mud with Distilled Water to Improve its Efficiency to Remove Methylene blue from Aqueous Solution,” International Research Journal of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Vol. 15, pp. 1-19, 2017.
• P. Szymczyk, U. Filipkowska, T. Jóźwiak, M. Kuczajowska-Zadrożna, “phosphate removal from aqueous solutions by chitin and chitosan in flakes,” Progress on Chemistry and Application of Chitin and its Derivatives, Vol. XXI, 2016.
• K. Oktor, N.Y. Yuzer, G. Hasirci, N. Hilmioglu, “Optimization of Removal of Phosphate from Water by Adsorption Using Biopolymer Chitosan Beads,” Water Air Soil Pollution, Vol. 234, pp. 271, 2023.
• H.T. Nguyen, H.M. Bui, “Adsorption of nitrate and phosphate in an aqueous solution on composites of PVA and chitosan prepared from a Somanniathelphusa sinensis shell,” Water Supply, Vol. 21, pp. 765-779, 2021.
• U. Filipkowska, J. Rodziewicz, R. Sobotka,” eEfect of pH value and adsorbent concentration on the effectiveness of adsorption onto chitin and chitosan,” Progress on Chemistry and Application of Chitin and and its Derivatives, Vol. XV, pp.79-86, 2010.
• F. Abidar, M. Morghi, A. Ait Ichou, A. Soudani, M. Chiban, F. Sinan, M. Zerbet, “Removal of orthophosphate ions from aqueous solution using chitin as natural adsorbent,” Desalination and Water Treatment, Vol. 57, pp. 14739–14749, 2016
• E. Oguz, “Sorption of phosphate from solid/liquid interface by fly ash,” Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, Vol. 262, pp. 113–117, 2005
• F.Z. Aboussabiq, K. Yetteft, M. Mountadar, S. Etahiri, O. Assobhei, “Potential of the perlite in the treatment of domestic wastewater,” Physical and Chemical News, Vol. 68, pp. 92-99, 2013.
• N.I. Ribeiro, O.B. Pessanha, M.L.G. S. Pessanha, D. Guimarães, “Efficient phosphate adsorption by a composite composed of Mg6Al2(CO3)(OH)16.4H2O, LDH and Chitosan: kinetic, thermodynamic, desorption, and characterization studies,: Separation and Purification Technology, Vol. 307, pp. 122717, 2023.
• C. Tsamo, M. Assabe, J. Argue, S. O. Ihimbru, “Discoloration of methylene blue and slaughter house wastewater using maize cob biochar produced using a constructed burning chamber: A comparative study,” Scientific African, Vol. 3, pp. e00078, 2019.
• M.B. Desta, “Batch Sorption Experiments: Langmuir and Freundlich Isotherm Studies for the Adsorption of Textile Metal Ions onto Teff Straw (Eragrostis tef ) Agricultural Waste,” Journal of Thermodynamics, Vol. 2013, Article ID 375830, 6 pages, 2013.
• S. Sahoo, Uma, S. Banerjee, Y C. Sharma, “Application of natural clay as a potential adsorbent for the removal of a toxic dye from aqueous solutions,” Desalination and Water Treatment, Vol. 52, pp. 34-36, 2014.
• C. Tsamo, B. Issa, I. Samomssa, T.B. Fouogoung, “Removal of Hexavalent Chromium from Aqueous Solution using Unmodified saw Dust: Batch and Column Studies,” Current Journal of Applied Science and Technology, Vol. 32, pp. 1-16, 2019.
• C. Tsamo, A. Paltahe, D. Fotio, T.A. Vincent, W. F. Sales, “One, Two and Three parameter isotherms, Kinetics and Thermodynamic Evaluation of Co(II) Removal from Aqueous Solution Using Dead Neem Leaves” International Journal of Chemical Engineering, Vol 2019, Article ID 6452672, 14 pages, 2019.
• M.A. Kanawi, M. AL Haydar, W.N. Radhi, “Effect of Chitin and Chitosan in Improvement of Plant Growth and Anti-Fungal Activity,” Egyptian Journal of Botany, Vol. 61, pp. 513-519, 2021.
• EPA, “Chitosan; Poly-D-Glucosamine (128930) Fact Sheet,” Biopesticide Active Ingredient Fact Sheets, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, (2003). www.epa.gov/pesticides/biopesticides/ingredients/factsheets/factsheet_128930.htm Issued June 2003
• A. Rkhaila, A. Elhartit, M.B. Idriss, O. Khadjia, “The Amendment with Chitin and/or Chitosan Improves the Germination and Growth of Lycopersicon esculentum L., Capsicum annuum L. and Solanum melongena L,” Indian Journal of Agricultural Research, Vol. 54, pp. 420-428, 2020.
• G.C. Percival, S. Graham, C. Percival, J. Banks, “The Influence of Chitin- and Chitosan-Based Soil Amendments on Pathogen Severity of Apple and Pear Scab,” Arboriculture & Urban Forestry, Vol. 49, pp. 64–74, 2023.
• H. M. Ibrahim, S. A. Arafa, “Effect of Chitosan on Growth, Yield and Certain Salinity Stress-Related Metabolites in Two Barley Cultivars Contrasting in Salt Tolerance,” Journal of Plant Production, Mansoura Univ., Vol. 11, pp. 899-906, 2020.