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En Az Gelişmiş Ülkelerde Dış Ticaretin İstihdam Üzerindeki Toplumsal Cinsiyet Etkisi

Year 2025, Volume: 9 Issue: 3, 1635 - 1649, 25.08.2025
https://doi.org/10.25295/fsecon.1440991

Abstract

Ticaretin serbestleşmesi, bir ekonominin göreli fiyatlarında ve sektörel yapısında değişikliklere yol açar. Bu değişiklikler, işgücü piyasasında cinsiyete göre becerilerin eşitsiz dağılımından kaynaklanan toplumsal cinsiyete dayalı istihdam etkilerini beraberinde getirir. Ayrıca, uluslararası pazarlarda rekabet gücü kaynağı olarak kadınların nispeten düşük ücretlerinden yararlanmak amacıyla, belirli sektörlerde kadın işçilerin erkeklere tercih edilmesi de söz konusu olabilir. En az gelişmiş ülkeler (EAGÜ), gelişmekte olan ülkeler arasında en dezavantajlı ekonomilerden oluşmaktadır. Bu makale, EAGÜ’lerde ticarete açıklığın cinsiyete bağlı istihdam üzerindeki etkilerini incelemektedir. Özellikle, bu makale, dengeli panel verilerin mevcut olduğu 28 EAGÜ için 2000-2022 dönemini kapsayan panel veri analizi kullanarak, ticaret açıklığı ölçülerinin (örneğin, ticaret oranı, ihracat oranı, ithalat oranı) geniş ekonomik sektörlerdeki (yani tarım, sanayi, hizmetler) kadın istihdam payı üzerindeki etkisini tahmin etmektedir. Ampirik analizin bulguları, ihracat oranının tarım ve hizmet sektörlerinde kadınların istihdamdaki payı ile istatistiksel olarak anlamlı ve negatif bir ilişkiye sahip olduğunu göstermektedir. Tarımdaki kadın istihdam yoğunluğu üzerindeki olumsuz etki, çoğu EAGÜ’de gözlemlenen mahsul bazında cinsiyet ayrımcılığından kaynaklanıyor olabilir. İthalat oranı ile hizmet sektöründeki kadın istihdam yoğunluğu arasında pozitif bir ilişki bulunmaktadır. Genel olarak, gelir düzeyi ve doğurganlık, nüfus artışı ve kentleşme gibi demografik faktörler, EAGÜ’lerde geniş ekonomik sektörlerde kadın istihdam yoğunluğunu açıklamakta ticaret açıklığı ölçülerinden daha önemli bir rol oynamaktadır.

References

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  • Black, S. & Brainerd, E. (2004). Importing equality? The impact of globalization on gender discrimination. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 57(4), 540–559.
  • Elson, D., Grown, C., & Çağatay, N. (2007). Mainstream, heterodox, and feminist trade theory. E. van Steveren, D. Elson, C. Grown, & N. Çağatay (Ed.), The feminist economics of trade. Routledge.
  • Heckscher, E., & Ohlin, B. (1991). Heckscher-Ohlin trade theory. MIT Press.
  • Hoechle, D. (2007). Robust standard errors for panel regressions with cross-sectional dependence. The Stata Journal, 7(3), 281-312.
  • Juhn, C., Ujhelyi, G., & Villegas-Sanchez, C. (2014). Men, women, and machines: How trade impacts gender inequality. Journal of Development Economics, 106, 179–193.
  • Khondker, B., & Pettinotti, L. (2024). COVID-19, trade and gender in Bangladesh. Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy, 29(4), s. 1766-1784.
  • Kucera, D., & Tejani, S. (2014). Feminization, defeminization, and structural change in manufacturing. World Development, 64, 569–582.
  • Lopez Mourelo, E., & Samaan, D. (2018). Can labor provisions in trade agreements promote gender equality? Empirical evidence from Cambodia. Review of Development Economics, 22, s. 404–433.
  • Pieters, J. (2018). Trade liberalization and gender inequality. IZA World of Labor, 114(2), 1-11.
  • Standing, G. (1989). Global feminization through flexible labor. World Development, 17(7), 1077–1095.
  • Standing, G. (1999). Global feminization through flexible labor: A theme revisited. World Development, 27(3), 583–602.
  • Stolper, W., & Samuelson, P. (1941). Protection and Real Wages. The Review of Economic Studies, 9(1), 58–73.
  • Tanaka, K., & Greaney, T. (2024). Trade and employment in the formal and informal sectors: A natural experiment from Cambodia. Journal of Asian Economics (101676).
  • Tejani, S., & Fukuda-Parr, S. (2021). Gender and COVID-19: Workers in global value chains. International Labour Review, 160(4), 649-667.
  • Tejani, S., & Kucera, D. (2021). Defeminization, structural transformation and technological upgrading in manufacturing. Development and Change, 52(3), 533–573.
  • Tejani, S., & Milberg, W. (2016). Global defeminization? Industrial upgrading and manufacturing employment in developing countries. Feminist Economics, 22(2), 24-54.
  • UNCTAD. (2021). Trade and gender linkages: An analysis of least developed countries. Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.
  • UNCTAD. (2023a). State of Commodity Dependence 2023 Report. Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.
  • UNCTAD (2023b). Linking Trade and Gender towards Sustainable Development. Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.
  • UNDESA. (2024). The Least Developed Country Category: 2024 Country Snapshots. New York: UNDESA.
  • Wamboye, E., Adekola, A., & Bruno, S. (2015). Sectoral Shifts and Women’s Employment: A Study of Thirty-Nine Least Developed Countries. Journal of Economic Issues, 49(4), 1045-1076.

The Gender Impact of Trade on Employment in Least Developed Countries

Year 2025, Volume: 9 Issue: 3, 1635 - 1649, 25.08.2025
https://doi.org/10.25295/fsecon.1440991

Abstract

Trade liberalization leads to changes in relative prices and the sectoral structure of an economy. These changes imply gendered employment effects mainly due to the unequal distribution of skills by gender in the labor market. It might also be the case that women workers are preferred over men in certain sectoral settings to take advantage of women’s relatively low wages as a source of competitiveness in international markets. Least developed countries (LDCs) consist of the most disadvantaged economies among developing countries. This paper investigates the gendered employment effects of trade openness in the case of LDCs. Specifically, the paper estimates the impact of trade openness measures (e.g., trade ratio, export ratio, import ratio) on the female share of employment in broad economic sectors (i.e., agriculture, industry, services) using panel data analysis covering the period of 2000-2022 for 28 LDCs for which balanced panel data is available. The findings of the empirical analysis show that export share has a statistically significant and negative association with women’s share of employment in agriculture and services. The adverse impact on the female intensity of employment in agriculture may be due to gender segregation by crop observed in most LDCs. There is a positive association between import share and female intensity of employment in services. Overall, income level and demographic factors such as fertility, population growth and urbanization play a more significant role than trade openness measures in explaining the female intensity of employment in broad economic sectors in LDCs.

References

  • Becker, G. (1971). The economics of discrimination (Second Edition). Chicago. The University of Chicago Press.
  • Black, S. & Brainerd, E. (2004). Importing equality? The impact of globalization on gender discrimination. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 57(4), 540–559.
  • Elson, D., Grown, C., & Çağatay, N. (2007). Mainstream, heterodox, and feminist trade theory. E. van Steveren, D. Elson, C. Grown, & N. Çağatay (Ed.), The feminist economics of trade. Routledge.
  • Heckscher, E., & Ohlin, B. (1991). Heckscher-Ohlin trade theory. MIT Press.
  • Hoechle, D. (2007). Robust standard errors for panel regressions with cross-sectional dependence. The Stata Journal, 7(3), 281-312.
  • Juhn, C., Ujhelyi, G., & Villegas-Sanchez, C. (2014). Men, women, and machines: How trade impacts gender inequality. Journal of Development Economics, 106, 179–193.
  • Khondker, B., & Pettinotti, L. (2024). COVID-19, trade and gender in Bangladesh. Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy, 29(4), s. 1766-1784.
  • Kucera, D., & Tejani, S. (2014). Feminization, defeminization, and structural change in manufacturing. World Development, 64, 569–582.
  • Lopez Mourelo, E., & Samaan, D. (2018). Can labor provisions in trade agreements promote gender equality? Empirical evidence from Cambodia. Review of Development Economics, 22, s. 404–433.
  • Pieters, J. (2018). Trade liberalization and gender inequality. IZA World of Labor, 114(2), 1-11.
  • Standing, G. (1989). Global feminization through flexible labor. World Development, 17(7), 1077–1095.
  • Standing, G. (1999). Global feminization through flexible labor: A theme revisited. World Development, 27(3), 583–602.
  • Stolper, W., & Samuelson, P. (1941). Protection and Real Wages. The Review of Economic Studies, 9(1), 58–73.
  • Tanaka, K., & Greaney, T. (2024). Trade and employment in the formal and informal sectors: A natural experiment from Cambodia. Journal of Asian Economics (101676).
  • Tejani, S., & Fukuda-Parr, S. (2021). Gender and COVID-19: Workers in global value chains. International Labour Review, 160(4), 649-667.
  • Tejani, S., & Kucera, D. (2021). Defeminization, structural transformation and technological upgrading in manufacturing. Development and Change, 52(3), 533–573.
  • Tejani, S., & Milberg, W. (2016). Global defeminization? Industrial upgrading and manufacturing employment in developing countries. Feminist Economics, 22(2), 24-54.
  • UNCTAD. (2021). Trade and gender linkages: An analysis of least developed countries. Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.
  • UNCTAD. (2023a). State of Commodity Dependence 2023 Report. Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.
  • UNCTAD (2023b). Linking Trade and Gender towards Sustainable Development. Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.
  • UNDESA. (2024). The Least Developed Country Category: 2024 Country Snapshots. New York: UNDESA.
  • Wamboye, E., Adekola, A., & Bruno, S. (2015). Sectoral Shifts and Women’s Employment: A Study of Thirty-Nine Least Developed Countries. Journal of Economic Issues, 49(4), 1045-1076.
There are 22 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language English
Subjects Labor Economics, Developmental Economy - Micro
Journal Section Articles
Authors

Nursel Aydıner Avşar 0000-0002-4228-9020

Bengi Yanık İlhan 0000-0003-1578-8390

Publication Date August 25, 2025
Submission Date February 21, 2024
Acceptance Date May 17, 2025
Published in Issue Year 2025 Volume: 9 Issue: 3

Cite

APA Aydıner Avşar, N., & Yanık İlhan, B. (2025). The Gender Impact of Trade on Employment in Least Developed Countries. Fiscaoeconomia, 9(3), 1635-1649. https://doi.org/10.25295/fsecon.1440991

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