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Doğu Avrupa ve Orta Asya Ülkelerinde Kara Para Aklama ve Terörizmin Finansmanını Etkileyen Faktörler: Panel GMM Analizi

Year 2025, Volume: 27 Issue: 2, 198 - 217, 30.12.2025
https://doi.org/10.54627/gcd.1663839

Abstract

Bu çalışma, Doğu Avrupa ve Orta Asya ülkelerinde kara para aklama (AML) ve terörizmin finansmanı risklerini değerlendirerek bu risklerin yolsuzluk algısı, ekonomik özgürlük ve demokrasi düzeyi ile olan ilişkisini incelemektedir. Basel AML Endeksi temel alınarak yapılan analiz, yolsuzluk algısının AML üzerindeki etkisinin %46, demokrasi endeksinin etkisinin %27 ve ekonomik özgürlük endeksinin etkisinin %11 olduğunu ortaya koymaktadır. Yolsuzluğun yüksek olduğu ülkelerde finansal sistemin zayıfladığı ve kara para aklamanın daha yaygın hâle geldiği gözlemlenmiştir. Demokrasi seviyesinin yüksek olduğu ülkelerde ise, hukukun üstünlüğü ve şeffaf düzenlemelerin AML uyumunu artırdığı ve terörizmin finansmanını engellediği tespit edilmiştir. Bu bulgular, güçlü kurumsal yapılar ve demokratik yönetimlerin, kara para aklama ve terörizmin finansmanı ile mücadelede daha etkin olduğunu göstermektedir. Çalışmada, uluslararası düzenlemelerin güçlendirilmesi, finansal şeffaflığın artırılması ve dijital teknolojilerin AML süreçlerine entegrasyonu gibi politika önerileri sunulmaktadır. Bu öneriler, Doğu Avrupa ve Orta Asya ülkelerinde finansal sistemlerin güçlendirilmesine ve terörizmin finansmanı ile daha etkin bir şekilde mücadele edilmesine katkı sağlamayı amaçlamaktadır.

Project Number

yok

References

  • Abdullahi, Y. S. (2010). Promoting financial sector stability through an effective AML/ CFT regime. Journal of Money Laundering Control, 13(2), 139-154. https://doi. org/10.1108/13685201011034087
  • Akın, E. (2009). Anayasa Mahkemesi-Yargıtay kararları ve uluslararası hukuk metinleri çerçevesinde terör ve terörün finansmanı suçu. Adalet Yayınevi.
  • Alnasser, M., & Saif, S. A. (2021). Money laundering in selected emerging economies: Is there a role for banks? Journal of Money Laundering Control, 24, 102–110.
  • Al Qudah, A., Bani-Mustafa, A., & Yamen, A. (2019). The mechanism of control of corruption and the rule of law: Mediating the effect of culture on terrorism financing. Journal of Money Laundering Control, 22(3), 498-514. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMLC- 11-2018-0066
  • Aluko, A., & Bagheri, M. (2012). The impact of money laundering on economic and financial stability and on political development in developing countries: The case of Nigeria. Journal of Money Laundering Control, 15(4), 442-457. https://doi. org/10.1108/13685201211266024
  • Alkan, N. (2004). Terörün örgütlerinin finans kaynakları. Polis Dergisi, 40, 290-298.
  • Ay, A. (2018). Terörle mücadelenin uluslararası finansmanı. Uluslararası Sosyal ve Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi, 5(9), 102-117.
  • Arvidsson, A., & Colleoni, E. (2021). Digital identity and self-sovereign identity: A European perspective. Journal of Information Technology & Politics, 18(3), 345–362. https://doi.org/10.1080/19331681.2021.1903124
  • Aydın, S., & Yel, F. (2016). Aklama ve terörün finansmanıyla mücadelede işlemlerin ertelenmesi. TBB Bankacılar Dergisi, 99, 37-51.
  • Aykın, H., & Sözmen, H.K. (2009). Terörün finansmanı. Mali Suçları Araştırma Kurulu Yayını No:12.
  • Beck, R., Müller-Bloch, C., & King, J. L. (2018). Governance in the blockchain economy: A framework and research agenda. Journal of the Association for Information Systems, 19(10). https://aisel.aisnet.org/jais/vol19/iss10/1
  • Bell, E. (2003). The confiscation, forfeiture and disruption of terrorist finances. Journal of Money Laundering Control, 7(2).
  • Birleşmiş Milletler Genel Kurulu. (1999, 9 Aralık). Uluslararası Terörizmin Finansmanının Önlenmesine Dair Sözleşme [A/RES/54/109]. https://www.un.org/law/cod/finterr.htm
  • Borlini, L. S. (2008). Issues of the international criminal regulation of money laundering in the context of economic globalization (Paolo Baffi Centre Research Paper No. 2008-34). https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1296636
  • Buz, F., & Erul, M. R. (2018). Sosyoekonomik gelişmişlik düzeyinin yolsuzluk algı endeksi üzerindeki etkisine ilişkin bir analiz. International Journal of Public Finance, 3(2), 233-248.
  • Basel Institute on Governance. (2012).Basel AML Index 2012 Report.
  • Basel Institute on Governance. (2013). Basel AML Index 2013 Report.
  • Basel Institute on Governance. (2015). Basel AML Index 2015 Report.
  • Basel Institute on Governance. (2016). Basel AML Index 2016 Report.
  • Basel Institute on Governance. (2017). Basel AML Index 2017 Report.
  • Basel Institute on Governance. (2018). Basel AML Index 2018 Report.
  • Basel Institute on Governance. (2019). Basel AML Index 2019 Report.
  • Basel Institute on Governance. (2020). Basel AML Index 2020 Report.
  • Basel Institute on Governance. (2021). Basel AML Index 2021 Report.
  • Basel Institute on Governance. (2022). Basel AML Index 2022 Report.
  • Basel Institute on Governance. (2023). Basel AML Index 2023 Report.
  • Basel Institute on Governance. (2024). Basel AML Index 2024 Report.
  • Chaikin, D. (2008). Commercial corruption and money laundering: A preliminary analysis. Journal of Financial Crime, 15(3), 269-281.
  • Chatain, P.-L., McDowell, J., Mousset, C., Schott, P. A., & van der Does de Willebois, E. (2009). Preventing money laundering and terrorist financing: A practical guide for bank supervisors. World Bank. http://hdl.handle.net/10986/2638
  • Çakmak, H., & Çapar, G. (2009). Terörizmin finansmanına karşı küresel mücadelede Birleşmiş Milletler ve G-8’in faaliyetleri. Terörizmin finansmanı ve ekonomisi. Barış Platin Kitabevi.
  • Çomaklı, Ş., & Uzun, M. E. (2018). Terörizmin finansmanı ve kara para aklamada hawala yöntemi. ICpess 2018 Proceedings 2: Economic Studies, 70.
  • Farfán-Méndez, C. (2019). The structure of drug trafficking organizations and money laundering practices: A risk appetite hypothesis. Journal of Illicit Economies and Development, 1(3), 294-311. http://doi.org/10.31389/jied.1
  • Financial Action Task Force (FATF). (2012). International standards on combating money laundering and the financing of terrorism & proliferation: The FATF recommendations. Paris: FATF/OECD.
  • Freeman, M. (2011). The sources of terrorist financing: Theory and typology. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 34(6), 461-475.
  • Friedman, M. (1962). Capitalism and freedom. University of Chicago Press.
  • Ganda, F. (2019). The environmental impacts of financial development in OECD countries: A panel GMM approach. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 26(7), 6758- 6772. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-04474-w
  • Gediz Oral, B. (2016). Terörizmin finansmanıyla mücadelede vergilendirme ve terör ilişkisi. Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 14(4), 341-358.
  • Gediz Oral, B., & Gökbunar, A. R. (2017). Karapara aklamanın (politik) araçları: Yolsuzluk, organize suç ve mücadelede mali önlemler. Yönetim ve Ekonomi Dergisi, 24(1), 89-114. https://doi.org/10.18657/yonveek.307504
  • Herman, E., & Zsido, K.-E. (2023). The financial sustainability of retail food SMEs based on financial equilibrium and financial performance. Mathematics, 11, 3410.
  • Heritage Foundation. (2021). The Economic Freedom Index 2021. https://www.heritage. org/index/
  • Hinterseer, H. (2002). Criminal finance: The political economy of money laundering in a comparative legal context. Kluwer Law International.
  • International Monetary Fund (IMF). (2020). Anti-money laundering and combating the financing of terrorism (AML/CFT)—Policy paper. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund.
  • İçel, K. (2009). Malvarlığına karşı suçlar ve ekonomik suçluluk. In Karşılaştırmalı güncel ceza hukuku serisi. Seçkin Yayınları.
  • Kolstad, I., & Wiig, A. (2011). Does democracy reduce corruption? CMI Working Paper.
  • Korauš, A., Jančíková, E., Gombár, M., Kurilovská, L., & Černák, F. (2024). Ensuring financial system sustainability: Combating hybrid threats through anti-money laundering and counter-terrorist financing measures. Journal of Risk and Financial Management, 17(2), 55. https://doi.org/10.3390/jrfm17020055
  • Kumar, N., & Seetharama, A. (2022). Adoption of anti-money laundering by banks. International Journal of Early Childhood Special Education, 14, 10541–47.
  • Miller, T., Kim, A. B., & Roberts, J. M. (2020). 2020 Index of Economic Freedom. The Heritage Foundation.
  • Schmid, A. P., & Jongman, A. J. (1988). Political terrorism: A new guide to actors, authors, concepts, data bases, theories, and literature. Transaction Publishers.
  • Şahin, D. (2017). Üst-orta gelirli ülkelerde ekonomik özgürlükler, demokrasi ve yolsuzluk ilişkisinin analizi. Mehmet Akif Ersoy Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 9(19), 137-147.
  • Şimşek, T. (2016). Terörizmin finansmanıyla mücadele stratejileri ve yöntemleri: PKK örneği (Doktora tezi).
  • Şimşek, T., & Özkaya, Y. (2018). Türkiye’de terörizm ve temel makroekonomik göstergeler arasındaki ilişki. Gaziantep University Journal of Social Sciences, 17(1), 267-290.
  • Toroitich, E. K. (2010). Challenges faced by Central Bank of Kenya in combating money laundering.
  • Transparency International. (2024). Corruption Perceptions Index 2024. https://www. transparency.org/en/cpi/2024
  • Uca, N., Civelek, M. E., & Çemberci, M. (2019). Yolsuzluk algısının gayrisafi yurt içi hasıla üzerindeki etkisinde lojistik performans ile küresel rekabetin ara değişken rolü: Türkiye değerlendirmesi. OPUS International Journal of Society Researches, 10(17), 1229-1261. https://doi.org/10.26466/opus.522497
  • Unger, B., Ferwerda, J., de Kruijf, W., Rawlings, G., & Siegel, M. (2014). The economic and legal effectiveness of the European Union’s anti-money laundering policy. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing.
  • Üstün, O. (2008). Karapara aklama ve terörün finansmanı ile mücadelede uluslararası girişimler ve araçlara toplu bakış. Bankacılar Dergisi, 65(19).
  • Wang, H., Yang, M., He, R., & Zheng, P. (2021). Environmental regulation, foreign direct investment, and export sophistication of China: An empirical study based on dynamic system GMM and threshold model. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-14311-2

Factors Affecting Money Laundering and Terrorism Financing in Eastern Europe and Central Asia: Panel GMM Analysis

Year 2025, Volume: 27 Issue: 2, 198 - 217, 30.12.2025
https://doi.org/10.54627/gcd.1663839

Abstract

This study assesses the risks of money laundering (AML) and the financing of terrorism in Eastern European and Central Asian countries, examining their relationship with perceptions of corruption, economic freedom, and the level of democracy. Based on the Basel AML Index, the analysis reveals that the impact of corruption perception on AML is 46%, the impact of the democracy index is 27%, and the impact of the economic freedom index is 11%. It has been observed that in countries with high levels of corruption, financial systems weaken and money laundering becomes more prevalent. In contrast, in countries with high levels of democracy, the rule of law and transparent regulations enhance AML compliance and prevent the financing of terrorism. These findings suggest that strong institutional frameworks and democratic governance are more effective in combating money laundering and the funding of terrorism. The study also presents policy recommendations such as strengthening international regulations, increasing financial transparency, and integrating digital technologies into AML processes. These recommendations aim to reinforce financial systems in Eastern European and Central Asian countries and to combat the financing of terrorism more effectively.

Project Number

yok

References

  • Abdullahi, Y. S. (2010). Promoting financial sector stability through an effective AML/ CFT regime. Journal of Money Laundering Control, 13(2), 139-154. https://doi. org/10.1108/13685201011034087
  • Akın, E. (2009). Anayasa Mahkemesi-Yargıtay kararları ve uluslararası hukuk metinleri çerçevesinde terör ve terörün finansmanı suçu. Adalet Yayınevi.
  • Alnasser, M., & Saif, S. A. (2021). Money laundering in selected emerging economies: Is there a role for banks? Journal of Money Laundering Control, 24, 102–110.
  • Al Qudah, A., Bani-Mustafa, A., & Yamen, A. (2019). The mechanism of control of corruption and the rule of law: Mediating the effect of culture on terrorism financing. Journal of Money Laundering Control, 22(3), 498-514. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMLC- 11-2018-0066
  • Aluko, A., & Bagheri, M. (2012). The impact of money laundering on economic and financial stability and on political development in developing countries: The case of Nigeria. Journal of Money Laundering Control, 15(4), 442-457. https://doi. org/10.1108/13685201211266024
  • Alkan, N. (2004). Terörün örgütlerinin finans kaynakları. Polis Dergisi, 40, 290-298.
  • Ay, A. (2018). Terörle mücadelenin uluslararası finansmanı. Uluslararası Sosyal ve Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi, 5(9), 102-117.
  • Arvidsson, A., & Colleoni, E. (2021). Digital identity and self-sovereign identity: A European perspective. Journal of Information Technology & Politics, 18(3), 345–362. https://doi.org/10.1080/19331681.2021.1903124
  • Aydın, S., & Yel, F. (2016). Aklama ve terörün finansmanıyla mücadelede işlemlerin ertelenmesi. TBB Bankacılar Dergisi, 99, 37-51.
  • Aykın, H., & Sözmen, H.K. (2009). Terörün finansmanı. Mali Suçları Araştırma Kurulu Yayını No:12.
  • Beck, R., Müller-Bloch, C., & King, J. L. (2018). Governance in the blockchain economy: A framework and research agenda. Journal of the Association for Information Systems, 19(10). https://aisel.aisnet.org/jais/vol19/iss10/1
  • Bell, E. (2003). The confiscation, forfeiture and disruption of terrorist finances. Journal of Money Laundering Control, 7(2).
  • Birleşmiş Milletler Genel Kurulu. (1999, 9 Aralık). Uluslararası Terörizmin Finansmanının Önlenmesine Dair Sözleşme [A/RES/54/109]. https://www.un.org/law/cod/finterr.htm
  • Borlini, L. S. (2008). Issues of the international criminal regulation of money laundering in the context of economic globalization (Paolo Baffi Centre Research Paper No. 2008-34). https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1296636
  • Buz, F., & Erul, M. R. (2018). Sosyoekonomik gelişmişlik düzeyinin yolsuzluk algı endeksi üzerindeki etkisine ilişkin bir analiz. International Journal of Public Finance, 3(2), 233-248.
  • Basel Institute on Governance. (2012).Basel AML Index 2012 Report.
  • Basel Institute on Governance. (2013). Basel AML Index 2013 Report.
  • Basel Institute on Governance. (2015). Basel AML Index 2015 Report.
  • Basel Institute on Governance. (2016). Basel AML Index 2016 Report.
  • Basel Institute on Governance. (2017). Basel AML Index 2017 Report.
  • Basel Institute on Governance. (2018). Basel AML Index 2018 Report.
  • Basel Institute on Governance. (2019). Basel AML Index 2019 Report.
  • Basel Institute on Governance. (2020). Basel AML Index 2020 Report.
  • Basel Institute on Governance. (2021). Basel AML Index 2021 Report.
  • Basel Institute on Governance. (2022). Basel AML Index 2022 Report.
  • Basel Institute on Governance. (2023). Basel AML Index 2023 Report.
  • Basel Institute on Governance. (2024). Basel AML Index 2024 Report.
  • Chaikin, D. (2008). Commercial corruption and money laundering: A preliminary analysis. Journal of Financial Crime, 15(3), 269-281.
  • Chatain, P.-L., McDowell, J., Mousset, C., Schott, P. A., & van der Does de Willebois, E. (2009). Preventing money laundering and terrorist financing: A practical guide for bank supervisors. World Bank. http://hdl.handle.net/10986/2638
  • Çakmak, H., & Çapar, G. (2009). Terörizmin finansmanına karşı küresel mücadelede Birleşmiş Milletler ve G-8’in faaliyetleri. Terörizmin finansmanı ve ekonomisi. Barış Platin Kitabevi.
  • Çomaklı, Ş., & Uzun, M. E. (2018). Terörizmin finansmanı ve kara para aklamada hawala yöntemi. ICpess 2018 Proceedings 2: Economic Studies, 70.
  • Farfán-Méndez, C. (2019). The structure of drug trafficking organizations and money laundering practices: A risk appetite hypothesis. Journal of Illicit Economies and Development, 1(3), 294-311. http://doi.org/10.31389/jied.1
  • Financial Action Task Force (FATF). (2012). International standards on combating money laundering and the financing of terrorism & proliferation: The FATF recommendations. Paris: FATF/OECD.
  • Freeman, M. (2011). The sources of terrorist financing: Theory and typology. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 34(6), 461-475.
  • Friedman, M. (1962). Capitalism and freedom. University of Chicago Press.
  • Ganda, F. (2019). The environmental impacts of financial development in OECD countries: A panel GMM approach. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 26(7), 6758- 6772. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-04474-w
  • Gediz Oral, B. (2016). Terörizmin finansmanıyla mücadelede vergilendirme ve terör ilişkisi. Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 14(4), 341-358.
  • Gediz Oral, B., & Gökbunar, A. R. (2017). Karapara aklamanın (politik) araçları: Yolsuzluk, organize suç ve mücadelede mali önlemler. Yönetim ve Ekonomi Dergisi, 24(1), 89-114. https://doi.org/10.18657/yonveek.307504
  • Herman, E., & Zsido, K.-E. (2023). The financial sustainability of retail food SMEs based on financial equilibrium and financial performance. Mathematics, 11, 3410.
  • Heritage Foundation. (2021). The Economic Freedom Index 2021. https://www.heritage. org/index/
  • Hinterseer, H. (2002). Criminal finance: The political economy of money laundering in a comparative legal context. Kluwer Law International.
  • International Monetary Fund (IMF). (2020). Anti-money laundering and combating the financing of terrorism (AML/CFT)—Policy paper. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund.
  • İçel, K. (2009). Malvarlığına karşı suçlar ve ekonomik suçluluk. In Karşılaştırmalı güncel ceza hukuku serisi. Seçkin Yayınları.
  • Kolstad, I., & Wiig, A. (2011). Does democracy reduce corruption? CMI Working Paper.
  • Korauš, A., Jančíková, E., Gombár, M., Kurilovská, L., & Černák, F. (2024). Ensuring financial system sustainability: Combating hybrid threats through anti-money laundering and counter-terrorist financing measures. Journal of Risk and Financial Management, 17(2), 55. https://doi.org/10.3390/jrfm17020055
  • Kumar, N., & Seetharama, A. (2022). Adoption of anti-money laundering by banks. International Journal of Early Childhood Special Education, 14, 10541–47.
  • Miller, T., Kim, A. B., & Roberts, J. M. (2020). 2020 Index of Economic Freedom. The Heritage Foundation.
  • Schmid, A. P., & Jongman, A. J. (1988). Political terrorism: A new guide to actors, authors, concepts, data bases, theories, and literature. Transaction Publishers.
  • Şahin, D. (2017). Üst-orta gelirli ülkelerde ekonomik özgürlükler, demokrasi ve yolsuzluk ilişkisinin analizi. Mehmet Akif Ersoy Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 9(19), 137-147.
  • Şimşek, T. (2016). Terörizmin finansmanıyla mücadele stratejileri ve yöntemleri: PKK örneği (Doktora tezi).
  • Şimşek, T., & Özkaya, Y. (2018). Türkiye’de terörizm ve temel makroekonomik göstergeler arasındaki ilişki. Gaziantep University Journal of Social Sciences, 17(1), 267-290.
  • Toroitich, E. K. (2010). Challenges faced by Central Bank of Kenya in combating money laundering.
  • Transparency International. (2024). Corruption Perceptions Index 2024. https://www. transparency.org/en/cpi/2024
  • Uca, N., Civelek, M. E., & Çemberci, M. (2019). Yolsuzluk algısının gayrisafi yurt içi hasıla üzerindeki etkisinde lojistik performans ile küresel rekabetin ara değişken rolü: Türkiye değerlendirmesi. OPUS International Journal of Society Researches, 10(17), 1229-1261. https://doi.org/10.26466/opus.522497
  • Unger, B., Ferwerda, J., de Kruijf, W., Rawlings, G., & Siegel, M. (2014). The economic and legal effectiveness of the European Union’s anti-money laundering policy. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing.
  • Üstün, O. (2008). Karapara aklama ve terörün finansmanı ile mücadelede uluslararası girişimler ve araçlara toplu bakış. Bankacılar Dergisi, 65(19).
  • Wang, H., Yang, M., He, R., & Zheng, P. (2021). Environmental regulation, foreign direct investment, and export sophistication of China: An empirical study based on dynamic system GMM and threshold model. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-14311-2
There are 57 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language Turkish
Subjects Globalisation, Terrorism in International Relations
Journal Section Research Article
Authors

Ali Kemal Başbuğ 0000-0002-0830-5816

Project Number yok
Submission Date March 23, 2025
Acceptance Date October 26, 2025
Publication Date December 30, 2025
Published in Issue Year 2025 Volume: 27 Issue: 2

Cite

APA Başbuğ, A. K. (2025). Doğu Avrupa ve Orta Asya Ülkelerinde Kara Para Aklama ve Terörizmin Finansmanını Etkileyen Faktörler: Panel GMM Analizi. Güvenlik Çalışmaları Dergisi, 27(2), 198-217. https://doi.org/10.54627/gcd.1663839