Şiddet İçerikli Video Oyunları ve Saldırganlık İlişkisinin Gözden Geçirilmesi

Abstract

Şiddet içerikli video oyunları, son yıllarda popüler bir eğlence aktivitesi haline gelmiştir. Saldırganlık alan yazınında kabul gören kuramlar, saldırganlığın biliş, uyarılma, duygulanım ya da davranış gibi spesifik bir bileşenine odaklandıkları için video oyunu şiddetine maruz kalmanın etkilerini açıklamada görece sınırlı kalmışlardır. Genel Saldırganlık Modeli, şiddet içerikli video oyunu tüketmenin olası tüm etkilerini süreç boyunca açıklamaya çalışmıştır ve önceki pek çok kuramsal açıklamayı bütüncül bir yaklaşımla bir araya getirmiştir. Böylece bu tür içeriğin tüketilmesi esnasında ya da hemen sonrasında saldırganlıkla ilgili bilişlerde, saldırgan uyarılmada, saldırgan duygulanımda ve saldırgan davranışta meydana gelen artış ile ilişkili olduğu önerilmiştir. Nitekim alanda farklı yöntemler kullanılarak yürütülen çok sayıda çalışma bu görüşü destekleyen kanıtlar sunmuştur. Genel Saldırganlık Modeli ayrıca şiddet içerikli video oyunlarını tekrarlı biçimde tüketmenin, saldırganlık ve şiddet içeren uyaranlar için zamanla duyarsızlaşma yaratacağını önermiştir. Bununla paralel olarak çok sayıda araştırma şiddet içeren video oyunlarına maruz kalmanın empati, özgeci davranış ve diğerine yönelmiş saldırganlık karşısında duyarlılık gibi olumlu sonuçlarda azalma ile ilgili olduğunu göstermiştir. Alanda artan ilgiyle yürütülen bu araştırmalar ve yıllar içinde bu araştırmaların bulgularını bir araya getirerek inceleyen meta-analiz çalışmalarının sonuçları şiddet içerikli video oyunu oynama ve saldırganlık arasında tutarlı bir ilişki olduğuna dair kanıtlar sağlamışlardır. Böylece şiddet içerikli video oyunlarının saldırgan tepkilerin ortaya çıkması için bir risk faktörü olduğu yaygın olarak kabul edilmiştir. Diğer yandan bu konuda ülkemizde yürütülen çalışma sayısının sınırlı olduğu ve konunun yeterince ilgi görmediği tespit edilmiştir. Bu doğrultuda bu çalışmanın amacı Genel Saldırganlık Kuramı çerçevesinden şiddet içerikli video oyunları ve saldırganlık üzerine getirilen temel kuramsal açıklamaları ve bazı görgül çalışma bulgularını gözden geçirerek alana dikkat çekmektir.

Keywords

• Saldırganlık
• Şiddet içerikli video oyunları
• Genel Saldırganlık Modeli

A Review of The Relationship Between Violent Video Games and Aggression

Abstract

Violent video games have become a popular leisure activity in recent years. Aggression theories have been relatively limited in explaining the effects of video game violence as they focus on a specific component of aggression such as cognition, arousal, affect, or behaviour. The General Aggression Model attempted to explain all the possible effects of consuming violent video games throughout the process by combining many previous theoretical explanations with a holistic approach. Accordingly, the model suggested that it was associated with increased aggressive cognitions, arousal, affect, and behaviour that occur during or immediately after consuming such content. Further, The General Aggression Model has suggested that repeatedly consuming violent video games causes desensitization to aggressive stimuli over time. Numerous studies conducted using different methods in the field have provided evidence to support that violent video games are associated with an increase in aggressive cognition, arousal, affection, behaviour and a decrease in positive outcomes, such as empathy, prosocial behaviour, and sensitivity to aggression directed towards others. The results of these studies conducted with an increasing interest in this field and the results of meta-analysis studies, which have gathered the findings of these studies over the years, provided evidence that there is a consistent relationship between violent video game playing and aggression. On the other hand, the number of studies conducted in our country on violent video games effects are limited. In this regard, the present study aims to draw attention to the field by reviewing the underlying theoretical explanations and some empirical evidence on violent video games and aggression within the framework of General Aggression Theory.

Keywords

• Aggression
• Violent video games
• General Aggression Model

References

1. Anderson, C. A. (2004). An update on the effects of playing violent video games. Journal of Adolescence, 27, 113-122. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2003.10.009
2. Anderson, C., A., Carnagey, N., L., Flanagan, M., Benjamin, A., J., Eubanks, J. ve Valentine, J., C. (2004). Violent video games: Specific effects of violent content on aggressive thoughts and behavior. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology(36), 199-249. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(04)36004-1
3. Anderson, C. A. ve Bushman, B. J. (2001). Effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, and prosocial behavior: A meta-analytic review of the scientific literature. Psychological Science, 12(5), 353–359. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00366
4. Anderson, C. A. ve Bushman, B. J. (2002). Human aggression. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 27-51. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135231
5. Anderson, C. A. ve Bushman, B. J. (2018). Media violence and the General Aggression Model. Journal of Social Issues, 74 (2), 386-413. doi: 10.1111/josi.12275
6. Anderson, C. A. ve Carnagey, N. L. (2009). Causal effects of violent sports video games on aggression: Is it competitiveness or violent content? Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45(4), 731-739. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2009.04.019
7. Anderson, C. A. ve Dill, K. E. (2000). Video games and aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behavior in the laboratory and in life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(4), 772-790. doi: 10.1037//O022-3514.78.4.772
8. Anderson, C. A. ve Huesmann, L. R. (2003). Human aggression: A social-cognitive view. M. A. Hogg ve J. Cooper (Ed.), Handbook of social psychology içinde (s. 296-323). London: Sage Publications. http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781848608221.n12

9. Anderson, C. A., Shibuya, A., Ihori, N., Swing, E. L., Bushman, B. J., Sakamoto, A., vd. (2010). Violent video game effects on aggression, empathy, and prosocial behavior in Eastern and Western countries: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 136(2), 151-173. doi: 10.1037/a0018251
10. Arriaga, P., Esteves, F., Carneiro, P. ve Monteiro, M. B. (2006). Violent computer games and their effects on state hostility and physiological arousal. Aggressive Behavior, 32(2), 146-158. doi: 10.1002/ab.20134
11. Arriaga, P., Esteves, F., Carneiro, P. ve Monteiro, M. B. (2008). Are the effects of unreal violent video games pronounced when playing with a virtual reality system? Aggressive Behavior, 34 (5), 521-538. doi: 10.1002/ab.20272
12. Arriaga, P., Adrião, J., Madeira, F., Cavaleiro, I., Maia e Silva, A., Barahona, I., vd. (2015). A “dry eye” for victims of violence: Effects of playing a violent video game on pupillary dilation to victims and on aggressive behavior. Psychology of Violence, 5(2), 199-208. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0037260
13. Bailey, K. ve West, R. (2013). The effects of an action video game on visual and affective information processing. Brain Research, 1504, 35-46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2013.02.019
14. Ballard, M. E. ve Lineberger, R. (1999). Video game violence and confederate gender: Effects on reward and punishment given by college males. Sex Roles, 41, 541-558. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018843304606
15. Ballard, M. E., Hamby, R. H., Panee, C. D. ve Nivens, E. E. (2006). Repeated exposure to video game play results in decreased blood pressure responding. Media Psychology, 8(4), 323-341. doi: 10.1207/ s1532785xmep0804_1
16. Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory of mass communications. Media Psychology, 3, 265-299. https://doi.org/10.1207/S1532785XMEP0303_03
17. Barlett, C., Haris, R. J. ve Bruey, C. (2007). The effect of the amount of blood in a violent video game on aggression, hostility, and arousal. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 44, 539-546. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2007.10.003
18. Bartholow, B. D., Bushman, B. J. ve Sestir, M. A. (2006). Chronic violent video game exposure and desensitization to violence: Behavioral and event-related brain potential data. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42(4), 532-539. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2005.08.006
19. Bartholow, B. D., Sestir, M. A. ve Davis, E. B. (2005). Correlates and consequences of exposure to video game violence: Hostile personality, empathy and aggressive behaviour. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31 (11), 1573-1586. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167205277205
20. Barlett, C. P. ve Rodeheffer, C. (2009). Effects of realism on extended violent and nonviolent video game play on aggressive thoughts, feelings and physiological arousal. Aggressive Behavior, 35 (3), 213-224. doi: 10.1002/ab.20279
21. Barlett, C., Branch, O., Rodeheffer, C. ve Harris, R. (2009). How long do the short-term violent video game effects last? Aggressive Behavior, 35, 225-236. doi: 10.1002/ab.20301
22. Berkowitz, L. (1993). Aggression: Its causes, consequenses, and control. New York, McGraw-Hill.
23. Bluemka, M., Friedrich, M. ve Zumbach, J. (2010). The influence of violent and nonviolent computer games on implicit measures of aggressiveness. Aggressive Behaviour 36 (1), 1-13. doi: 10.1002/ab.20329
24. Bushman, B. J. ve Anderson, C. A. (2002). Violent video games and hostile expectations: A test of the general aggression model. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(12), 1679-1686. https://doi.org/10.1177/014616702237649
25. Bushman, B. J. ve Anderson, C. A. (2009). Comfortably numb: Desensitizing effects of violent media on helping others. Psychological Science, 21(3), 273-277. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02287.x
26. Bushman, B. J. ve Huesmann, L. R. (2001). Effects of televised violence on aggression. D. Singer & J. Singer (Ed.), Handbook of children and the media içinde (s. 223-254). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
27. Calvert, S. L., Appelbaum, M., Dodge, K. A., Graham, S., Nagayama Hall, G. C., Hamby, S., vd. (2017). The American Psychological Association task force assessment of violent video games: Science in the service of public interest. American Psychologist, 72(2), 126-143. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0040413
28. Carnagey, N. ve C. Anderson. (2005). The effects of reward and punishment in violent video games on aggressive affect, cognition, and behavior. Psychology Science 16(11), 882-889. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01632.x
29. Cicchirillo, V. ve Chory-Assad, R. M. (2005). Effects of affective orientation and video game play on aggressive thoughts and behaviors. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 49, 435-449. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15506878jobem 4904_5
30. DeCamp, W. (2017). Who plays violent video games? An exploratory analysis of predictors of playing violent games. Personality and Individual Differences 117, 260-266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.06.027
31. Demirtaş Madran, H. A ve Ferligül Çakılcı, E. (2014). Çok oyunculu çevrimiçi video oyunu oynayan bireylerde video oyunu bağımlılığı ve saldırganlık. Anadolu Psikiyatri Dergisi, 15, 99-107. doi: 10.5455/apd.39828
32. Diaz, R. L., Wong. U., Hodgins, D.C, Chiu, C.G., Goghari, V.M. (2016). Violent video game players and non-players differ on facial emotion recognition. Aggressive Behavior, 42(1), 16-28. doi: 10.1002/ab.21602
33. Donnerstein, E., Slaby, R. G. ve Eron, L. D. (1994). The mass media and youth aggression. In L. D. Eron, J. H. Gentry ve P. Schlegel (Ed.), Reason to hope: A psychosocial perspective on violence & youth içinde (s. 219-250). Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association.
34. Elson, M. ve Ferguson, C. J. (2014). Twenty-five years of research on violence in digital games and aggression: Empirical evidence, perspectives, and a debate gone astray. European Psychologist, 19(1), 33–46. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040/a000147
35. Engelhardt, C. R., Bartholow, B. D., Kerr, G. T. ve Bushman, B. J. (2011). This is your brain on violent video games: Neural desensitization to violence predicts increased aggression following violent video game exposure. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47(5), 1033-1036. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2011.03.027
36. Ferguson, C. J. (2007a). The good, the bad and the ugly: A meta-analytic review of positive and negative effects of violent video games. Psychiatry Quarterly, 78 (4), 309-316. doi: 10.1007/s11126-007-9056-9
37. Ferguson, C. J. (2007b). Evidence for publication bias in video game violence effects literature: A meta-analytic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 12, 470-482. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2007.01.001
38. Ferguson, C. J. (2013). Violent video games and the Supreme Court: Lessons for the scientific community in the wake of Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Association. American Psychologist, 68(2), 57-74. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030597
39. Ferguson, C. J., Garza A., Jerabeck, J. Ramos R. ve Galind M. (2013). Not worth the fuss after all? Cross-sectional and prospective data on violent video game influences on aggression, visuospatial cognition and mathematics ability in a sample of youth. Journal of Youth Adolescence, 42, 109-122. doi: 10.1007/s10964-012-9803-6
40. Ferguson, C. J. ve Kilburn, J. (2010). Much ado about nothing: The misestimation and overinterpretation of violent video game effects in Eastern and Western nations: Comment on Anderson et al. (2010). Psychological Bulletin, 136(2), 174-178. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018566
41. Ferguson, C. J. ve Rueda, S. M. (2009). Examining the validity of the modified Taylor competitive reaction time test of aggression. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 5, 12-1137. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-009-9069-5
42. Ferguson, C. J. ve Rueda, S. M. (2010). The Hitman study: Violent video game exposure effects on aggressive behaviour, hostile feelings, and depression. European Psychologist, 15 (2), 99-108. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040/a000010
43. Fikkers, K.M,, Piotrowski, J. T., Valkenburg, P. M. (2016). Beyond the lab: Investigating early adolescents' cognitive, emotional, and arousal responses to violent games. Computers in Human Behavior, 60, 542-549. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.02.055
44. Fischer, P., Kastenmüller, A. ve Greitemeyer, T. (2010). Media violence and the self: The impact of personalized gaming characters in aggressive video games on aggressive behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46(1), 192-195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2009.06.010
45. Funk, J. B., Buchman, D. D., Jenks, J. ve Bechtoldt, H. (2003). Playing violent video games, desensitization, and moral evaluation in children. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 24(4), 413-436. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0193-3973(03)00073-X
46. Funk, J. B., Bechtoldt-Baldacci, H., Pasold, T. ve Baumgartner, J. (2004). Violence exposure in real-life, video games, television, movies, and the internet: Is there desensitization? Journal of Adolescence, 27, 23-39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2003.10.005
47. Gao, X., Pan, W., Li, C., Weng, L., Yao, M. ve Chen, A. (2017). Long-time exposure to violent video games does not show desensitization on empathy for pain: An fMRI study. Frontiers in Psychology 8, 1-10. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00650
48. Gentile, D. A. ve Anderson, C. A. (2003). Violent video games: The newest media violence hazard. D. A. Gentile (Ed.), Media violence and children içinde (s. 130-152). Westport, CT: Praeger Publishing.
49. Gentile, D. A., Swing, E. L., Anderson, C. A., Rinker, D. ve Thomas, K. M. (2016). Differential neural recruitment during violent video game play in violent- and nonviolent-game players. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 5(1), 39-51. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000009
50. Gentile, D. A., Bender, P. K. ve Anderson, C. A. (2017). Violent video game effects on salivary cortisol, arousal, and aggressive thoughts in children. Computers in Human Behavior, 70, 39–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.12.045
51. Gentile, D. A. ve Walsh, D. A. (2002). A normative study of family media habits. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 23, 157-178. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0193-3973(02)00102-8
52. Giumetti, G. W. ve Markey, P. M. (2007). Violent video games and anger as predictors of aggression. Journal of Research in Personality, 41, 1234–1243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2007.02.005
53. Greitemeyer, T. (2013). Effects of playing video games on perceptions of one’s humanity. Journal of Social Psychology, 153, 499-514. doi: 10.1080/00224545.2013.768593.
54. Gunter, B. (2016). Does playing video games make players more violent? Macmillan Publishers Ltd, London.
55. Hartmann, T., ve Vorderer, P. A. (2010). It’s okay to shoot a character. Moral disengagement in violent video games. Journal of Communication, 60, 94-119. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2009.01459.x
56. Hasan, Y. (2017). Violent video games increase voice stress: An experimental study. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 6, 74-81. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000083
57. Hasan, Y., Bègue, L. ve Bushman, B. J. (2013). Violent video games stress people out and make them more aggressive. Aggressive Behavior, 39, 64-70. doi: 10.1002/ab.21454.
58. Hasan, Y., Bègue, L.ve Bushman, B. J. (2012). Viewing the world through “blood-red tinted glasses”: The hostile expectation bias mediates the link between violent video game exposure and aggression. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(4), 953-956. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2017.08.008
59. Hasan, Y., Bègue, L., Scharkow, M. ve Bushman, B. J. (2013). The more you play, the more aggressive you become: A long-term experimental study of cumulative violent video game effects on hostile expectations and aggressive behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 49(2), 224–227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2012.10.016
60. Hilgard, J., Engelhardt, C. R. ve Rouder, J. N. (2017). Overstated evidence for short-term effects of violent games on affect and behavior: A reanalysis of
61. Anderson et al. (2010). Psychological Bulletin, 143, 757-774. doi: 10.1037/bul0000074
62. Hong, S. C. (2015). Do cultural values matter? A cross-cultural study of the third-person effect and support for the regulation of violent video games. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 46, 7, 964-976. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022115588950
63. Huesmann, L. R. ve Guerra, N. G. (1997). Children's normative beliefs about aggression and aggressive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(2), 408–419. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.2.408
64. Huesmann, L. R. (1998). The role of social information processing and cognitive schema in the acquisition and maintenance of habitual aggressive behavior. R. G. Geen & E. Donnerstein (Ed.), Human aggression: Theories, research, and implications for social policy içinde (s. 73–109). Academic Press.
65. Huesmann, L. R. (2010). Nailing the coffin shut on doubts that violent video games stimulate aggression-Comment on Anderson et al. (2010). Psychological Bulletin, 136(2), 179-181. doi: 10.1037/a0018567
66. Hummer, T. A., Wang, Y., Kronenberger, W. G., Mosier, K. M., Kalnin, A. J., Dunn, D. W. ve Mathews, V. P. (2010). Short-term violent video game play by adolescents alters prefrontal activity during cognitive inhibition. Media Psychology, 13(2), 136–154. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213261003799854
67. Jansz, J. (2005). The emotional appeal of violent video games for adolescent males. Communication Theory, 15(3), 219-241. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2885.2005.tb00334.x
68. Jo, E. ve Berkowitz, L. (1994). A priming effect analysis of media influences: An update. J. Bryant ve D. Zillmann (Ed.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research içinde (s. 43-60). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
69. Ivory, J. D. ve Kalyanaraman, S. (2007). The effects of technological advancement and violent content in video games on players’ feelings of presence, involvement, physiological arousal, and aggression. Journal of Communication, 57, 532-555. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2007.00356.x
70. Kars, G. B. (2010). Şiddet içerikli bilgisayar oyunlarının çocuklarda saldırganlığa etkisi. Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. Ankara Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü. Ankara.
71. Kasumovic, M. M., Blake, K., Dixson, B. J. ve Denson, T. F. (2015). Why do people play violent video games? Demographic, status-related, and mating-related correlates in men and women. Personality and Individual Differences, 86, 204-211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.06.018
72. Kirsh, S., Mounts, J. ve Olczak, P. (2006). Violent media consumption and the recognition of dynamic facial expressions. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21(5), 571-584. doi: 10.1177/0886260506286840
73. Klimmt, C., Schmid, H., Nosper, A., Hartmann, T. ve Vorderer, P. (2008). Moral management: Dealing with moral concerns to maintain enjoyment of violent video games. A. Jahn-Sudmann, ve R. Stockmann (Ed.), Games without frontiers-wars without tears içinde (108-119). Hampshire, U.K.: Palgrave.
74. Konijn, E. A., Bijvank, M. ve Bushman, B. J. (2007). I wish I were a warrior: The role of wishful identification in the effects of violent video games on aggression in adolescent boys. Developmental Psychology, 43(4), 1038-1044. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.43.4.1038.
75. Krahé, B. ve Möller, I. (2004). Playing violent electronic games, hostile attributional style, and aggression-related norms in German adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 27(1), 53–69. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2003.10.006
76. Krahé, B., Möller, I., Huesmann, L. R., Kirwil, L., Felber, J. ve Berger, A. (2011). Desensization to media violence: Links with habitual media violence exposure, aggressive cognitions, and aggressive behaviour. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100, 630-646. doi: 10.1037/a0021711
77. Krcmar, M., Farrar, K. ve McGloin, R. (2011). The effects of video game realism on attention, retention and aggressive outcomes. Computers in Human Behavior, 2, 432-439. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2010.09.005
78. Lieberman, J. D., Solomon, S., Greenberg, J. ve McGregor, H. A. (1999). A hot new way to measure aggression: Hot sauce allocation. Aggressive Behavior, 25, 331-348. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-2337(1999)25:5<331::AID-AB2>3.0.CO;2-1
79. Lull, R. B. ve Bushman, B. J. (2016). Immersed in violence: Presence mediates the effect of 3D violent video gameplay on angry feelings. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 5(2), 133-144. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000062
80. Markey, P. M. ve Markey, C. N. (2010). Vulnerability to violent video games: A review and integration of personality research. Review of General Psychology, 14 (2), 82-91. doi: 10.1037/a0019000
81. Markey, P. M., Markey, C. N. ve French, J. E. (2015). Violent video games and real-world violence: Rhetoric versus data. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 4(4), 277-295. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000030
82. Markey, P. M. ve Scherer, K. (2009). An examination of psychoticism and motion capture controls as moderators of the effects of violent video games. Computers in Human Behavior, 25, 407-411. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2008.10.001
83. Montag C., Weber B., Trautner P., Newport B., Markett S., Walter N. T., vd. (2012). Does excessive play of violent first-person-shooter-video-games dampen brain activity in response to emotional stimuli? Biological Psychology, 89, 107-111. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2011.09.014.
84. Olson, C. K., Kutner, L., Warner, D., Almergi, J., Baer, L., Nicholi, A., vd. (2007). Factors correlated with violent video game use by adolescent boys and girls. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, 77-83. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007 .01.001
85. Paik, H. ve Comstock, G. (1994). The effects of television violence on antisocial behavior: A meta-analysis. Communication Research, 21 (4), 516-546. https://doi.org/10.1177/009365094021004004
86. Polman, H., de Castro, B. O. ve van Aken, M. A. G. (2008). Experimental study of the differential effects of playing versus watching violent video games on children's aggressive behavior. Aggressive Behavior, 34(3), 256-264. doi: 10.1002/ab.20245.
87. Saleem, M., Anderson, C. A. ve Gentile, D. A. (2012). Effects of prosocial, neutral, and violent video games on college students' affect. Aggressive Behavior, 38(4), 263-271. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21427
88. Scott, D. (1995). The effect of video games on feelings of aggression. Journal of Psychology, 129, 121-132. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.1995.9914952
89. Shapiro, M. A,. Pena-Herborn, J., Hancock J., T. (2006). Realism, imagination, and narrative video games. Vorderer, P. ve Bryant, J. (Ed). Playing Video Games: Motives, Responses, and Consequences içinde (s. 275–290), Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
90. Sestir, M. A. ve Bartholow, B. D. (2010). Violent and nonviolent video games produce opposing effects on aggressive and prosocial outcomes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46(6), 934-942. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2010.06.005
91. Siyez, D. M. ve Baran, B. (2017). Determining reactive and proactive aggression and empathy levels of middle school students regarding their video game preferences. Computers in Human Behavior, 72, 286-295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.03.006
92. Surette, R. ve Maze, A. (2015). Video game play and copycat crime: An exploratory analysis of an inmate population. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 4, 360-374. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000050
93. Sveen, B. (2015). Australia bans 220 video games in 4 months as Government adopts new classification model. (Aralık 5, 2017) Aralık 5, 2017 tarihinde http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-06-30/australia-bans-220-video-games-in-four-months/6582100 adresinden alınmıştır.
94. Szycik, G. R., Mohammadi, B., Hake, M., Kneer, J., Samii, A., Münte, T. F. ve te Wildt, B. T. (2016). Excessive users of violent video games do not show emotional desensitization: An fMRI study. Brain Imaging and Behavior, 11(3), 736–743. doi: 10.1007/s11682-016-9549-y.
95. Szycik, G. R., Mohammadi B., Münte T. F. ve Wildt, B. T. (2017). Lack of evidence that neural empathic responses are blunted in excessive users of violent video games: An fMRI study. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00174
96. Tear, M. J. ve Nielsen, M. (2013). Failure to demonstrate that playing violent video games diminishes prosocial behavior. Plos One 8, 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0068382
97. Uhlmann, E. ve Swanson, J. (2004). Exposure to violent video games increases automatic aggressiveness. Journal of Adolescence, 27(1), 41-52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2003.10.004
98. Wang, Y., Mathews, V. P., Kalnin, A. J., Mosier, K. M., Dunn, D. W., Saykin, A. J. ve Kronenberger, W. G. (2009). Short term exposure to a violent video game induces changes in frontolimbic circuitry in adolescents. Brain Imaging and Behavior, 3(1), 38–50. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11682-008-9058-8
99. Weber, R., Ritterfeld, U. ve Mathiak, K. (2006). Does playing violent video games induce aggression? Empirical evidence of a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Media Psychology, 8, 39–60. https://doi.org/10.1207/S1532 785XMEP0801_4
100. Weber, R., Ritterfeld, U. ve Kostygina, A. (2006). Aggression and violence as effects of playing violent video games? P. Vorderer & J. Bryant (Eds.), Playing video games: Motives, responses, and consequences içinde (s. 347–361). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
101. Valadez, J. J. ve Ferguson, C. J. (2012). Just a game after all: Violent video game exposure and time spent playing effects on hostile feelings, depression, and visuospatial cognition. Computers in Human Behavior, 28, 608-616. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2011.11.006
102. Yang, G. S., Huesmann, L. R., Bushman, B. J. (2014). Effects of playing a violent video game as male versus female avatar on subsequent aggression in male and female players. Aggressive Behavior, 40(6) 537-541. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21551
103. Zillmann, D. (1991). Television viewing and psychological arousal. J. Bryant ve D. Zillmann (Ed.), Responding to the screen: Reception and reaction processes içinde (s. 103–133). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.