The harmful effects of smoking and factors affecting smoking: maximal voluntary breath-holding time and exercise capacity

Year 2024, Volume: 13 Issue: 2, 599 - 606, 29.06.2024

Esra Pehlivan

https://doi.org/10.37989/gumussagbil.1369310

Abstract

Aim: The harmful effects of smoking and its impact on respiratory functions and exercise capacity are well-recognized health concerns in the present day, demanding further investigation. This study aims to assess the association between smoking and respiratory functions and exercise capacity while exploring factors contributing to smoking addiction.
Methods: A total of 893 volunteers (mean age: 27.24 years, range: 17-67) participated in this study, with 77% having a university education and 58% being female. Participants were categorized into active smokers, passive smokers, and non-smokers. Maximum Voluntary Breath-holding Time , 6-minute walk test distance, and 30-second chair stand test were used to assess respiratory functions and exercise capacity. Participants provided information about their smoking habits, which was analyzed and reported.
Results: There were no statistically significant differences in Maximum Voluntary Breath-holding Time, 6-minute walk test distance, and 30-second chair stand test scores between the groups (p>0.05). However, all smokers exhibited psychological dependence on cigarettes, with 88% showing signs of physical dependence. Smoking initiation was significantly influenced by friends (64%). While 61% of active smokers acknowledged potential health issues associated with smoking, only 92% had not sought medical advice to quit smoking.
Conclusion: This study did not demonstrate a conclusive effect of cigarette consumption on respiratory functions and exercise capacity. However, it revealed a strong association between smoking habits and social factors such as friendships. Additionally, most smokers exhibited psychological and physical dependence on cigarettes, emphasizing the need for further research and awareness campaigns to highlight the detrimental consequences of smoking.

Keywords

Addiction, Cigarette, Physical, Tobacco.

Sigaranın zararları ve sigarayı etkileyen faktörler: maksimal istemli nefes tutma süresi ve egzersiz kapasitesi

Abstract

Amaç: Sigaranın zararlı etkileri ve solunum fonksiyonları ile egzersiz kapasitesi üzerindeki etkisi, günümüzde tanınan ve daha fazla araştırmayı gerektiren bir sağlık sorunlarıdır. Bu çalışma, sigara içmenin solunum fonksiyonları ve egzersiz kapasitesi üzerindeki etkisi ile sigara bağımlılığına katkıda bulunan faktörleri değerlendirmeyi amaçlamaktadır.
Yöntemler: Bu çalışmaya toplam 893 gönüllü katıldı (ortalama yaş: 27.24, aralık: 17-67), bunların %77'si üniversite eğitimine sahip olup, %58'i kadındı. Katılımcılar aktif sigara içenler, pasif sigara içenler ve sigara içmeyenler olarak kategorilere ayrıldı. Solunum fonksiyonları ve egzersiz kapasitesi değerlendirmesi için maksimum gönüllü nefes tutma süresi, 6 dakikalık yürüme test mesafesi ve 30 saniyelik otur kalk testi kullanıldı. Katılımcılar sigara alışkanlıklarıyla ilgili bilgiler sağlamış, bu bilgiler analiz edilmiş ve rapor edilmiştir.
Bulgular: Gruplar arasında maksimum gönüllü nefes tutma Süresi, 6 dakikalık yürüme test mesafesi ve 30 saniyelik otur kalk testi skorlarında istatistiksel olarak anlamlı farklılıklar bulunmamıştır (p>0.05). Bununla birlikte, tüm sigara içenlerin psikolojik olarak sigaraya bağımlı olduğu ve %88'inin fiziksel bağımlılık belirtileri gösterdiği tespit edilmiştir. Sigara başlama süreci büyük ölçüde arkadaşlar tarafından etkilenmiştir (%64). Aktif sigara içenlerin %61'i sigarayla ilişkilendirilen olası sağlık sorunlarını kabul etmiş olsa da, %92'si sigarayı bırakmak için tıbbi tavsiye almamıştır.
Sonuç: Bu çalışma, sigara tüketiminin solunum fonksiyonları ve egzersiz kapasitesi üzerine kesin bir etki göstermemiştir. Ancak, sigara alışkanlıkları ile arkadaşlık gibi sosyal faktörler arasında güçlü bir ilişki olduğunu ortaya koymuştur. Ayrıca, çoğu sigara içicisinin psikolojik ve fiziksel olarak sigaraya bağımlı olduğu ortaya konularak, sigaranın zararlı sonuçlarını vurgulamak için daha fazla araştırma ve farkındalık kampanyalarına ihtiyaç olduğu belirtilmiştir.

Keywords

Bağımlılık, Fiziksel Aktivite, Sigara, Tütün.

References

• 1.Özer N KM, Tokgozoglu L, Göksülük H, Karaaslan D, Kayikçioğlu M, Yilmaz M, Barçin C, Abaci A, Şahin M. Türkiye’de sigara tüketimi Verileri: Kardiyovasküler Risk Faktörlerine Yönelik Epidemiyolojik Çalışmaların Sistematik Derleme, Meta-Analiz ve Meta-Regresyonu. Türkiye Kardiyoloji Derneği. 2018;46(7):1-6.
• 2.Bozkurt N, Bozkurt, A. . Nikotin Bağımlılığını Belirlemede Fagerström Nikotin Bağımlılık Testinin (FBNT) Değerlendirilmesi ve Nikotin Bağımlılığı İçin Yeni Bir Test Oluşturulması. Pamukkale Medical Journal. 2016;9(1).
• 3.Mackenbach JP, Damhuis RA, Been JV. [The effects of smoking on health: growth of knowledge reveals even grimmer picture]. Nederlands tijdschrift voor geneeskunde. 2017;160:D869.
• 4.Zhang J, Lin XF, Bai CX. Comparison of clinical features between non-smokers with COPD and smokers with COPD: a retrospective observational study. International journal of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. 2014;9:57-63.
• 5.Al-Bashaireh AM, Haddad LG, Weaver M, Kelly DL, Chengguo X, Yoon S. The Effect of Tobacco Smoking on Musculoskeletal Health: A Systematic Review. Journal of environmental and public health. 2018;2018:4184190.
• 6.Nogami E, Miyai N, Zhang Y, et al. Effects of cigarette smoking on the association between respiratory muscle strength and skeletal muscle mass in middle-aged and older adults: the Wakayama Study. European geriatric medicine. Aug 2022;13(4):805-815.
• 7.Xia CL, Xiao SQ, Wu QJ, et al. Association Between Passive Smoking and Health Among Chinese Nurses: A Cross-Sectional Study. Frontiers in public health. 2021;9:741083.
• 8.Sukanya Badami BM, . Effect of Smoking on Breath Holding Time. International Journal of Physiology. 2017;5(2).
• 9.Brooks D, Solway S, Gibbons WJ. ATS statement on six-minute walk test. American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine. May 1 2003;167(9):1287.
• 10.Holland AE, Spruit MA, Troosters T, et al. An official European Respiratory Society/American Thoracic Society technical standard: field walking tests in chronic respiratory disease. The European respiratory journal. Dec 2014;44(6):1428-1446.
• 11.Nannini LJ, Zaietta GA, Guerrera AJ, Varela JA, Fernández OM, Flores DM. Breath-holding test in subjects with near-fatal asthma. A new index for dyspnea perception. Respiratory medicine. Feb 2007;101(2):246-253.
• 12.Lein DH, Jr., Alotaibi M, Almutairi M, Singh H. Normative Reference Values and Validity for the 30-Second Chair-Stand Test in Healthy Young Adults. International journal of sports physical therapy. 2022;17(5):907-914.
• 13.Heatherton TF, Kozlowski LT, Frecker RC, Fagerstrom KO. The Fagerstrom Test for Nicotine Dependence: a revision of the Fagerstrom Tolerance Questionnaire. British journal of addiction. Sep 1991;86(9):1119-1127.
• 14.Bardakci M, Oztora S, Dagdeviren HN. The Reliability and Validity Analysis of The Turkish Version of the Test to Assess the Psychological Dependence on Smoking. Eurasian Journal of Family Medicine. 2021.
• 15.Barrington-Trimis JL, Braymiller JL, Unger JB, et al. Trends in the Age of Cigarette Smoking Initiation Among Young Adults in the US From 2002 to 2018. JAMA network open. Oct 1 2020;3(10):e2019022.
• 16.Çiftci F, Ayoz S, Baygul D, Onen ZP, Sen E. Smoking behaviour and age. European Respiratory Journal. 2018;52(suppl 62):PA4539.
• 17.Audrain-McGovern J, Benowitz NL. Cigarette smoking, nicotine, and body weight. Clinical pharmacology and therapeutics. Jul 2011;90(1):164-168.
• 18.Dare S, Mackay DF, Pell JP. Relationship between smoking and obesity: a cross-sectional study of 499,504 middle-aged adults in the UK general population. PloS one. 2015;10(4):e0123579.
• 19.Taylor AE, Richmond RC, Palviainen T, et al. The effect of body mass index on smoking behaviour and nicotine metabolism: a Mendelian randomization study. Human molecular genetics. Apr 15 2019;28(8):1322-1330.
• 20.Piirtola M, Jelenkovic A, Latvala A, et al. Association of current and former smoking with body mass index: A study of smoking discordant twin pairs from 21 twin cohorts. PloS one. 2018;13(7):e0200140.
• 21.Tomioka K, Kurumatani N, Saeki K. The Association Between Education and Smoking Prevalence, Independent of Occupation: A Nationally Representative Survey in Japan. Journal of epidemiology. Mar 5 2020;30(3):136-142.
• 22.Tabuchi T, Kondo N. Educational inequalities in smoking among Japanese adults aged 25-94 years: Nationally representative sex- and age-specific statistics. Journal of epidemiology. Apr 2017;27(4):186-192.
• 23.Oelsner EC, Balte PP, Bhatt SP, et al. Lung function decline in former smokers and low-intensity current smokers: a secondary data analysis of the NHLBI Pooled Cohorts Study. The Lancet. Respiratory medicine. Jan 2020;8(1):34-44.
• 24.Tommola M, Ilmarinen P, Tuomisto LE, et al. The effect of smoking on lung function: a clinical study of adult-onset asthma. The European respiratory journal. Nov 2016;48(5):1298-1306.
• 25.Hedhli A, Slim A, Ouahchi Y, et al. Maximal Voluntary Breath-Holding Tele-Inspiratory Test in Patients with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. American journal of men's health. May-Jun 2021;15(3):15579883211015857.
• 26.Ideguchi H, Ichiyasu H, Fukushima K, et al. Validation of a breath-holding test as a screening test for exercise-induced hypoxemia in chronic respiratory diseases. Chronic respiratory disease. 2021/01/01 2021;18:14799731211012965.
• 27.Holmen TL, Barrett-Connor E, Clausen J, Holmen J, Bjermer L. Physical exercise, sports, and lung function in smoking versus nonsmoking adolescents. The European respiratory journal. Jan 2002;19(1):8-15.
• 28.Mesquita R, Gonçalves CG, Hayashi D, et al. Smoking status and its relationship with exercise capacity, physical activity in daily life and quality of life in physically independent, elderly individuals. Physiotherapy. Mar 2015;101(1):55-61.
• 29.Uysal MA, Kadakal F, Karşidağ C, Bayram NG, Uysal O, Yilmaz V. Fagerstrom test for nicotine dependence: reliability in a Turkish sample and factor analysis. Tuberkuloz ve toraks. 2004;52(2):115-121.
• 30.Sharma MK, Suman LN, Srivastava K, Suma N, Vishwakarma A. Psychometric properties of Fagerstrom Test of Nicotine Dependence: A systematic review. Industrial psychiatry journal. Jul-Dec 2021;30(2):207-216.
• 31.Sankır SS, H. ; Kardeş, VC. ; Atasoy N. A Qualitative Study: An Evaluation of Smoking Among Young People Aged 15–20 Years in Turkey Using Bourdieu’s Concepts. ADDICTA: The Turkish Journal on Addictions. 2022;9(3):233-240.
• 32.Philip KE, Bu F, Polkey MI, et al. Relationship of smoking with current and future social isolation and loneliness: 12-year follow-up of older adults in England. The Lancet regional health. Europe. Mar 2022;14:100302.
• 33.Bailey JA, Hill KG, Meacham MC, Young SE, Hawkins JD. Strategies for characterizing complex phenotypes and environments: General and specific family environmental predictors of young adult tobacco dependence, alcohol use disorder, and co-occurring problems. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2011;118:444-451.
• 34.Brown HA, Roberts RD, Chen TA, et al. Perceived Disease Risk of Smoking, Barriers to Quitting, and Cessation Intervention Preferences by Sex Amongst Homeless Adult Concurrent Tobacco Product Users and Conventional Cigarette-Only Users. International journal of environmental research and public health. Mar 18 2022;19(6).
• 35.Sornpaisarn B, Parvez N, Chatakan W, et al. Methods and factors influencing successful smoking cessation in Thailand: A case-control study among smokers at the community level. Tobacco induced diseases. 2022;20:67.