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Askeri Harcamalar Sürdürülebilir Kalkınmayı Engelliyor mu? NATO Ülkelerinden Ampirik Kanıtlar

Year 2024, Volume: 20 Issue: 48, 195 - 214, 23.08.2024
https://doi.org/10.17752/guvenlikstrtj.1511309

Abstract

Bu çalışma, NATO ülkelerinde askeri harcamaların sürdürülebilir kalkınma üzerindeki etkilerini analiz etmektedir. Analizde 1995-2019 dönemi için yıllık veriler kullanılmıştır. Çalışmada değişkenler arasındaki eş bütünleşme ilişkisini araştırmak için Durbin-Hausman panel cointegration test; uzun dönem katsayıları tahmin etmek amacıyla ise Panel AMG tahmincisi kullanılmıştır. AMG tahmincisi sonuçları gösteriyor ki, NATO ülkelerinde askeri harcamalar ve sanayi üretim endeksi, sürdürülebilir kalkınma üzerinde negatif bir etki sergilerken, yabancı doğrudan yatırımlar pozitif bir etki yaratmıştır. Enerji tüketiminin etkisi ise negatif olup, diğer negatif etkilere göre daha az belirgindir. Çalışmada ayrıca askeri harcamaların sürdürülebilir kalkınma üzerindeki etkisinin ülke özelinde nasıl değişkenlik gösterdiği incelendi. Analizler, farklı ülkelerdeki ilişkinin yönü, anlamlılığı ve katsayı büyüklüğü açısından önemli farklılıklar ortaya koymuştur. Bu bulgulara göre, askeri harcamaların sürdürülebilir kalkınma üzerindeki etkileri ülkeden ülkeye değişmektedir. Bu nedenle ülkeler, kendine özgü dinamiklerini göz önünde bulundurarak sürdürülebilir kalkınmalarını sağlamak için politikalar geliştirmelidir.

References

  • AHMED Zahoor, AHMAD Mahmood, MURSHED Muntasir, VASEER Arif I., and KIRIKKALELI Dervis (2022). “The Trade-off between Energy Consumption, Economic Growth, Militarization, and CO 2 Emissions: Does the Treadmill of Destruction Exist in the Modern World?”, Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 48:4, 1-14.
  • AIZENMAN Joshua and REUVEN Glick (2003). “Military Expenditure, Threats, and Growth”, NBER Working Paper Series, no. w9618, National Bureau of Economic Research Cambridge, Mass., USA.
  • ALI Hamid E. (2007). “Military Expenditures and Inequality: Empirical Evidence from Global Data”, Defence and Peace Economics, 18:6, 519-535.
  • ALI Hamid E. (2012). “Military Expenditures and Inequality in the Middle East and North Africa: A Panel Analysis”, Defence and Peace Economics, 23:6, 575-89. https://doi.org/10.1080/10242694.2012.66 3578.
  • BARTNICZAK Bartosz and ANDRZEJ Raszkowski (2022). “Implementation of the Sustainable Cities and Communities Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) in the European Union”, Sustainability, 14:4, 16-38.
  • BEKMEZ Selehattin and DESTEK M. Akif (2015): “Savunma Harcamalarında Dışlama Etkisinin Incelenmesi: Panel Veri Analizi”, Siyaset, Ekonomi ve Yönetim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 3:2, 91-110.
  • BILDIRICI Melike (2017). “CO2 Emissions and Militarization in G7 Countries: Panel Cointegration and Trivariate Causality Approaches”, Environment and Development Economics, 22:6, 771-91.
  • CASSEN R. H (1987). “Our Common Future: Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development”, International Affairs, 64:1, 126.
  • CHANG Tsangyao, GUPTA Rangan, INGLESI-LOTZ Roula, SIMO-KENGNE Beatrice, SMITHERS Devon and TREMBLING Amy (2015). “Renewable Energy and Growth: Evidence from Heterogeneous Panel of G7 Countries Using Granger Causality”, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 52, 1405-1412.
  • CHASEK Pamela S., WAGNER Lynn M., LEONE Faye, LEBADA Ana‐Maria, and RISSE Nathalie (2016). “Getting to 2030: Negotiating the Post‐2015 Sustainable Development Agenda”, Review of European, Comparative & International Environmental Law, 25:1, 5-14.
  • CHOURCHOULIS Dionysios (2018). “Greece, Cyprus and Albania”, The Handbook of European Defence Policies and Armed Forces, 313-329.
  • DESTEBAŞI Emine (2017). “Savunma, Eğitim ve Sağlık Harcamaları Arasındaki Nedensellik Analizi: D-8 Ülkeleri Örneği”, Enderun, 1:1, 28-43.
  • DONG Kangyin, SUN Renjin, HOCHMAN Gal, and LI Hui (2018). “Energy Intensity and Energy Conservation Potential in China: A Regional Comparison Perspective”, Energy, 155, 782-795.
  • DUDZEVIČIŪTĖ Gitana, BEKESIENE Svajone, MEIDUTE-KAVALIAUSKIENE Ieva, and ŠEVČENKOKOZLOVSKA Galina (2021). “An Assessment of the Relationship between Defence Expenditure and Sustainable Development in the Baltic Countries”, Sustainability, 13:12, 6916.
  • EBERHARDT Markus and BOND Stephen (2009). “Cross-Section Dependence in Nonstationary Panel Models: A Novel Estimator”, MPRA Paper No. 17692, https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/id/ eprint/17692, accessed 22.05.2024.
  • ELGIN Ceyhun, ELVEREN Adem Y., ÖZGÜR Gökçer, and DERTLİ Gül (2022). “Military Spending and Sustainable Development”, Review of Development Economics, 26:3, 1466-1490.
  • ELVEREN Adem Y. (2012). “Military Spending and Income Inequality: Evidence on Cointegration and Causality for Turkey, 1963–2007”, Defence and Peace Economics, 23:3, 289-301.
  • ERDOGAN Seyfettin, GEDIKLI Ayfer, ÇEVIK Emrah İsmail, and ÖNCÜ Mehmet Akif (2022). “Does Military Expenditure Impact Environmental Sustainability in Developed Mediterranean Countries?”, Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 29:21, 31612-31630.
  • ESSEGHIR Asma and HAOUAOUI KHOUNI Leila (2014). “Economic Growth, Energy Consumption and Sustainable Development: The Case of the Union for the Mediterranean Countries”, Energy, 71, 218-225.
  • GARBIE Ibrahim H. (2014). “An Analytical Technique to Model and Assess Sustainable Development Index in Manufacturing Enterprises”, International Journal of Production Research, 52:16, 4876-4915.
  • GENG Liu, ABBAN Olivier Joseph, HONGXING Yao, OFORI Charles, COBBINAH Joana, AMPONG Sarah Akosua, and AKHTAR Muhammad (2023). “Do Military Expenditures Impede Economic Growth in 48 Islamic Countries? A Panel Data Analysis with Novel Approaches”, Environment, Development and Sustainability, 1-35.
  • GILLI Marianna, MARIN Giovanni, MAZZANTI Massimiliano, and NICOLLI Francesco (2017). “Sustainable Development and Industrial Development: Manufacturing Environmental Performance, Technology and Consumption/Production Perspectives”, Journal of Environmental Economics and Policy, 6:2, 183-203.
  • GOULD Kenneth A. (2007). “The Ecological Costs of Militarization”, Peace Review, 19:3, 331-334.
  • GRAHAM Jeremy C. and MUELLER Danielle (2019). “Military Expenditures and Income Inequality among a Panel of OECD Countries in the Post-Cold War Era, 1990–2007”, Peace Economics, Peace Science and Public Policy, 25:1, 20180016.
  • GUERRERO Omar A. and CASTAÑEDA Gonzalo (2022). “How Does Government Expenditure Impact Sustainable Development? Studying the Multidimensional Link between Budgets and Development Gaps”, Sustainability Science, 17:3, 987-1007.
  • HICKEL Jason (2020). “The Sustainable Development Index: Measuring the Ecological Efficiency of Human Development in the Anthropocene”, Ecological Economics, 167, 106331.
  • HOOKS Gregory and SMITH Chad L. (2004). “The Treadmill of Destruction: National Sacrifice Areas and Native Americans”, American Sociological Review, 69:4, 558–75.
  • ISIKSAL Aliya Zhakanova (2021). “Testing the Effect of Sustainable Energy and Military Expenses on Environmental Degradation: Evidence from the States with the Highest Military Expenses”, Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28:16, 20487-20498.
  • JORGENSON Andrew K., CLARK Brett, and KENTOR Jeffrey (2010). “Militarization and the Environment: A Panel Study of Carbon Dioxide Emissions and the Ecological Footprints of Nations, 1970–2000”, Global Environmental Politics, 10:1, 7-29.
  • KATIRCIOGLU Salih Turan, SERTOGLU Kamil, CANDEMIR Mehmet, and MERCAN Mehmet (2015). “Oil Price Movements and Macroeconomic Performance: Evidence from Twenty-Six OECD Countries”, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 44, 257-270.
  • KRAKWA Paul Adjei (2022). “The Effect of Industrialization, Militarization, and Government Expenditure on Carbon Dioxide Emissions in Ghana”, Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 29:56, 85229-85242.
  • LAN Wei, PAN Rui, LUO RongHua, and CHENG YongWei (2017). “High Dimensional Cross-Sectional Dependence Test under Arbitrary Serial Correlation”, Science China Mathematics, 60, 345-360.
  • LIN Eric S., ALI Hamid E., and LU Yu-Lung (2015). “Does Military Spending Crowd Out Social Welfare Expenditures? Evidence from a Panel of OECD Countries”, Defence and Peace Economics, 26:1, 33-48.
  • LOMAZZI Marta, BORISCH Bettina, and LAASER Ulrich (2014). “The Millennium Development Goals: Experiences, Achievements and What’s Next”, Global Health Action, 7:1, 23695.
  • MANAMPERI Nimantha (2016). “Does Military Expenditure Hinder Economic Growth? Evidence from Greece and Turkey”, Journal of Policy Modeling, 38:6, 1171-1193.
  • MEILING Li, TASPINAR Nigar, YAHYA Farzan, HUSSAIN Muhammad, and WAQAS Muhammad (2022). “The Symmetric and Asymmetric Effect of Defense Expenditures, Financial Liberalization, Health Expenditures on Sustainable Development”, Frontiers in Environmental Science, 10.
  • MICHAEL Chletsos and STELIOS Roupakias (2020). “The Effect of Military Spending on Income Inequality: Evidence from NATO Countries”, Empirical Economics, 58:3, 1305-1337.
  • OMER Abdeen Mustafa (2008). “Energy, Environment and Sustainable Development”, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 12:9, 2265-2300.
  • PELLOW David Naguib (2007). Resisting Global Toxics: Transnational Movements for Environmental Justice. MIT Press.
  • PESARAN M. Hashem (2007). “A Simple Panel Unit Root Test in the Presence of Cross‐section Dependence”, Journal of Applied Econometrics, 22:2, 265-312.
  • PESARAN M. Hashem and YAMAGATA Takashi (2008). “Testing Slope Homogeneity in Large Panels”, Journal of Econometrics, 142:1, 50-93.
  • RIDZUAN Abdul Rahim, ISMAIL Nor Asmat, and HAMAT Abdul Fatah Che (2018). “Foreign Direct Investment and Trade Openness: Do They Lead to Sustainable Development in Malaysia?”, Editorial Board, 81, 0-1.
  • SAUVANT Karl P. and MANN Howard (2019). “Making FDI More Sustainable: Towards an Indicative List of FDI Sustainability Characteristics”, The Journal of World Investment & Trade, 20:6, 916-952.
  • SCHWUCHOW Soeren C. (2018). “Military Spending and Inequality in Autocracies: A Simple Model”, Peace Economics, Peace Science and Public Policy, 24:4.
  • SHARIF Arshian and AFSHAN Sahar (2018). “Does Military Spending Impede Income Inequality? A Comparative Study of Pakistan and India”, Global Business Review, 19:2, 257-279.
  • SINGH Ajay Kumar, JYOTI Bhim, KUMAR Sanjeev, and LENKA Sanjaya Kumar (2021). “Assessment of Global Sustainable Development, Environmental Sustainability, Economic Development and Social Development Index in Selected Economies”, International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning, 16:1, 123-138.
  • SOLARIN Sakiru Adebola, AL-MULALI Usama, and OZTURK Ilhan (2018). “Determinants of Pollution and the Role of the Military Sector: Evidence from a Maximum Likelihood Approach with Two Structural Breaks in the USA”, Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 25:31, 30949-30961.
  • SWAMY Paravastu AVB (1970). “Efficient Inference in a Random Coefficient Regression Model”, Econometrica: Journal of the Econometric Society, 311-323.
  • TENAW Dagmawe and HAWITIBO Alemu L. (2021). “Carbon Decoupling and Economic Growth in Africa: Evidence from Production and Consumption-Based Carbon Emissions”, Resources, Environment and Sustainability, 6, 100040.
  • VADLAMANNATI Krishna Chaitanya (2008). “Exploring the Relationship between Military Spending & Income Inequality in South Asia”, William Davidson Institute Working Paper, 918, 56-75.
  • WESTERLUND Joakim (2008). “Panel Cointegration Tests of the Fisher Effect”, Journal of Applied Econometrics, 23:2, 193-233.
  • WILKINS Nigel (2004). “Defence Expenditure and Economic Growth: Evidence from a Panel of 85 Countries”, School of Finance and Economics, University of Technology, Sydney PO Box 123.
  • ZHANG Ying, WANG Rui, and YAO Dongqi (2017). “Does Defence Expenditure Have a Spillover Effect on Income Inequality? A Cross-Regional Analysis in China”, Defence and Peace Economics, 28:6, 731-749.
  • KAMALI Sam (2023). “Military Expenditure, Institutional Quality and the Sustainable Development Goals: Insight into the Dynamics of a Large-Scale Attempt at Sustainable Development”, Uppsala University Bachelor Thesis, 2023, p. 14. https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2:1742856, accessed 26.05.2024.
  • NOUBISSI DOMGUIA Edmond and POUMIE Boker (2019). “Economic Growth, Military Spending and Environmental Degradation in Africa”, MPRA Paper No. 97455. https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/ id/eprint/97455, accessed 15.05.2024.
  • “SIPRI Military Expenditure Database”, Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, 2024. https:// www.sipri.org/databases/milex, accessed 01.05.2024.
  • “The Sustainable Development Index Database”, 2024, https://www.sustainabledevelopmentindex.org/timeseries, accessed 14.05.2024.

Does Military Expenditure Impede Sustainable Development? Empirical Evidence from NATO Countries

Year 2024, Volume: 20 Issue: 48, 195 - 214, 23.08.2024
https://doi.org/10.17752/guvenlikstrtj.1511309

Abstract

This study analyzes the impact of military expenditures on sustainable development in NATO countries. The analysis utilizes annual data for the period between 1995 and 2019. In this study, the Durbin-Hausman panel cointegration test is used to analyze the cointegration relationship between the variables and the Panel AMG estimator is used to estimate the long-run coefficients. The results of the AMG estimator show that military expenditures and industrial production index have a negative effect on sustainable development in NATO countries, while foreign direct investments have a positive effect. The impact of primary energy consumption is negative and less significant than the other negative impacts. The study also analyzes how the impact of military expenditures on sustainable development varies across countries. This analysis reveals the significant differences in the direction, significance, and coefficient size of the relationship among different countries. These findings suggest that the impact of military expenditures on sustainable development varies across countries. Therefore, countries should develop policies to ensure sustainable development by considering their specific dynamics.

References

  • AHMED Zahoor, AHMAD Mahmood, MURSHED Muntasir, VASEER Arif I., and KIRIKKALELI Dervis (2022). “The Trade-off between Energy Consumption, Economic Growth, Militarization, and CO 2 Emissions: Does the Treadmill of Destruction Exist in the Modern World?”, Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 48:4, 1-14.
  • AIZENMAN Joshua and REUVEN Glick (2003). “Military Expenditure, Threats, and Growth”, NBER Working Paper Series, no. w9618, National Bureau of Economic Research Cambridge, Mass., USA.
  • ALI Hamid E. (2007). “Military Expenditures and Inequality: Empirical Evidence from Global Data”, Defence and Peace Economics, 18:6, 519-535.
  • ALI Hamid E. (2012). “Military Expenditures and Inequality in the Middle East and North Africa: A Panel Analysis”, Defence and Peace Economics, 23:6, 575-89. https://doi.org/10.1080/10242694.2012.66 3578.
  • BARTNICZAK Bartosz and ANDRZEJ Raszkowski (2022). “Implementation of the Sustainable Cities and Communities Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) in the European Union”, Sustainability, 14:4, 16-38.
  • BEKMEZ Selehattin and DESTEK M. Akif (2015): “Savunma Harcamalarında Dışlama Etkisinin Incelenmesi: Panel Veri Analizi”, Siyaset, Ekonomi ve Yönetim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 3:2, 91-110.
  • BILDIRICI Melike (2017). “CO2 Emissions and Militarization in G7 Countries: Panel Cointegration and Trivariate Causality Approaches”, Environment and Development Economics, 22:6, 771-91.
  • CASSEN R. H (1987). “Our Common Future: Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development”, International Affairs, 64:1, 126.
  • CHANG Tsangyao, GUPTA Rangan, INGLESI-LOTZ Roula, SIMO-KENGNE Beatrice, SMITHERS Devon and TREMBLING Amy (2015). “Renewable Energy and Growth: Evidence from Heterogeneous Panel of G7 Countries Using Granger Causality”, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 52, 1405-1412.
  • CHASEK Pamela S., WAGNER Lynn M., LEONE Faye, LEBADA Ana‐Maria, and RISSE Nathalie (2016). “Getting to 2030: Negotiating the Post‐2015 Sustainable Development Agenda”, Review of European, Comparative & International Environmental Law, 25:1, 5-14.
  • CHOURCHOULIS Dionysios (2018). “Greece, Cyprus and Albania”, The Handbook of European Defence Policies and Armed Forces, 313-329.
  • DESTEBAŞI Emine (2017). “Savunma, Eğitim ve Sağlık Harcamaları Arasındaki Nedensellik Analizi: D-8 Ülkeleri Örneği”, Enderun, 1:1, 28-43.
  • DONG Kangyin, SUN Renjin, HOCHMAN Gal, and LI Hui (2018). “Energy Intensity and Energy Conservation Potential in China: A Regional Comparison Perspective”, Energy, 155, 782-795.
  • DUDZEVIČIŪTĖ Gitana, BEKESIENE Svajone, MEIDUTE-KAVALIAUSKIENE Ieva, and ŠEVČENKOKOZLOVSKA Galina (2021). “An Assessment of the Relationship between Defence Expenditure and Sustainable Development in the Baltic Countries”, Sustainability, 13:12, 6916.
  • EBERHARDT Markus and BOND Stephen (2009). “Cross-Section Dependence in Nonstationary Panel Models: A Novel Estimator”, MPRA Paper No. 17692, https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/id/ eprint/17692, accessed 22.05.2024.
  • ELGIN Ceyhun, ELVEREN Adem Y., ÖZGÜR Gökçer, and DERTLİ Gül (2022). “Military Spending and Sustainable Development”, Review of Development Economics, 26:3, 1466-1490.
  • ELVEREN Adem Y. (2012). “Military Spending and Income Inequality: Evidence on Cointegration and Causality for Turkey, 1963–2007”, Defence and Peace Economics, 23:3, 289-301.
  • ERDOGAN Seyfettin, GEDIKLI Ayfer, ÇEVIK Emrah İsmail, and ÖNCÜ Mehmet Akif (2022). “Does Military Expenditure Impact Environmental Sustainability in Developed Mediterranean Countries?”, Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 29:21, 31612-31630.
  • ESSEGHIR Asma and HAOUAOUI KHOUNI Leila (2014). “Economic Growth, Energy Consumption and Sustainable Development: The Case of the Union for the Mediterranean Countries”, Energy, 71, 218-225.
  • GARBIE Ibrahim H. (2014). “An Analytical Technique to Model and Assess Sustainable Development Index in Manufacturing Enterprises”, International Journal of Production Research, 52:16, 4876-4915.
  • GENG Liu, ABBAN Olivier Joseph, HONGXING Yao, OFORI Charles, COBBINAH Joana, AMPONG Sarah Akosua, and AKHTAR Muhammad (2023). “Do Military Expenditures Impede Economic Growth in 48 Islamic Countries? A Panel Data Analysis with Novel Approaches”, Environment, Development and Sustainability, 1-35.
  • GILLI Marianna, MARIN Giovanni, MAZZANTI Massimiliano, and NICOLLI Francesco (2017). “Sustainable Development and Industrial Development: Manufacturing Environmental Performance, Technology and Consumption/Production Perspectives”, Journal of Environmental Economics and Policy, 6:2, 183-203.
  • GOULD Kenneth A. (2007). “The Ecological Costs of Militarization”, Peace Review, 19:3, 331-334.
  • GRAHAM Jeremy C. and MUELLER Danielle (2019). “Military Expenditures and Income Inequality among a Panel of OECD Countries in the Post-Cold War Era, 1990–2007”, Peace Economics, Peace Science and Public Policy, 25:1, 20180016.
  • GUERRERO Omar A. and CASTAÑEDA Gonzalo (2022). “How Does Government Expenditure Impact Sustainable Development? Studying the Multidimensional Link between Budgets and Development Gaps”, Sustainability Science, 17:3, 987-1007.
  • HICKEL Jason (2020). “The Sustainable Development Index: Measuring the Ecological Efficiency of Human Development in the Anthropocene”, Ecological Economics, 167, 106331.
  • HOOKS Gregory and SMITH Chad L. (2004). “The Treadmill of Destruction: National Sacrifice Areas and Native Americans”, American Sociological Review, 69:4, 558–75.
  • ISIKSAL Aliya Zhakanova (2021). “Testing the Effect of Sustainable Energy and Military Expenses on Environmental Degradation: Evidence from the States with the Highest Military Expenses”, Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28:16, 20487-20498.
  • JORGENSON Andrew K., CLARK Brett, and KENTOR Jeffrey (2010). “Militarization and the Environment: A Panel Study of Carbon Dioxide Emissions and the Ecological Footprints of Nations, 1970–2000”, Global Environmental Politics, 10:1, 7-29.
  • KATIRCIOGLU Salih Turan, SERTOGLU Kamil, CANDEMIR Mehmet, and MERCAN Mehmet (2015). “Oil Price Movements and Macroeconomic Performance: Evidence from Twenty-Six OECD Countries”, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 44, 257-270.
  • KRAKWA Paul Adjei (2022). “The Effect of Industrialization, Militarization, and Government Expenditure on Carbon Dioxide Emissions in Ghana”, Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 29:56, 85229-85242.
  • LAN Wei, PAN Rui, LUO RongHua, and CHENG YongWei (2017). “High Dimensional Cross-Sectional Dependence Test under Arbitrary Serial Correlation”, Science China Mathematics, 60, 345-360.
  • LIN Eric S., ALI Hamid E., and LU Yu-Lung (2015). “Does Military Spending Crowd Out Social Welfare Expenditures? Evidence from a Panel of OECD Countries”, Defence and Peace Economics, 26:1, 33-48.
  • LOMAZZI Marta, BORISCH Bettina, and LAASER Ulrich (2014). “The Millennium Development Goals: Experiences, Achievements and What’s Next”, Global Health Action, 7:1, 23695.
  • MANAMPERI Nimantha (2016). “Does Military Expenditure Hinder Economic Growth? Evidence from Greece and Turkey”, Journal of Policy Modeling, 38:6, 1171-1193.
  • MEILING Li, TASPINAR Nigar, YAHYA Farzan, HUSSAIN Muhammad, and WAQAS Muhammad (2022). “The Symmetric and Asymmetric Effect of Defense Expenditures, Financial Liberalization, Health Expenditures on Sustainable Development”, Frontiers in Environmental Science, 10.
  • MICHAEL Chletsos and STELIOS Roupakias (2020). “The Effect of Military Spending on Income Inequality: Evidence from NATO Countries”, Empirical Economics, 58:3, 1305-1337.
  • OMER Abdeen Mustafa (2008). “Energy, Environment and Sustainable Development”, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 12:9, 2265-2300.
  • PELLOW David Naguib (2007). Resisting Global Toxics: Transnational Movements for Environmental Justice. MIT Press.
  • PESARAN M. Hashem (2007). “A Simple Panel Unit Root Test in the Presence of Cross‐section Dependence”, Journal of Applied Econometrics, 22:2, 265-312.
  • PESARAN M. Hashem and YAMAGATA Takashi (2008). “Testing Slope Homogeneity in Large Panels”, Journal of Econometrics, 142:1, 50-93.
  • RIDZUAN Abdul Rahim, ISMAIL Nor Asmat, and HAMAT Abdul Fatah Che (2018). “Foreign Direct Investment and Trade Openness: Do They Lead to Sustainable Development in Malaysia?”, Editorial Board, 81, 0-1.
  • SAUVANT Karl P. and MANN Howard (2019). “Making FDI More Sustainable: Towards an Indicative List of FDI Sustainability Characteristics”, The Journal of World Investment & Trade, 20:6, 916-952.
  • SCHWUCHOW Soeren C. (2018). “Military Spending and Inequality in Autocracies: A Simple Model”, Peace Economics, Peace Science and Public Policy, 24:4.
  • SHARIF Arshian and AFSHAN Sahar (2018). “Does Military Spending Impede Income Inequality? A Comparative Study of Pakistan and India”, Global Business Review, 19:2, 257-279.
  • SINGH Ajay Kumar, JYOTI Bhim, KUMAR Sanjeev, and LENKA Sanjaya Kumar (2021). “Assessment of Global Sustainable Development, Environmental Sustainability, Economic Development and Social Development Index in Selected Economies”, International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning, 16:1, 123-138.
  • SOLARIN Sakiru Adebola, AL-MULALI Usama, and OZTURK Ilhan (2018). “Determinants of Pollution and the Role of the Military Sector: Evidence from a Maximum Likelihood Approach with Two Structural Breaks in the USA”, Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 25:31, 30949-30961.
  • SWAMY Paravastu AVB (1970). “Efficient Inference in a Random Coefficient Regression Model”, Econometrica: Journal of the Econometric Society, 311-323.
  • TENAW Dagmawe and HAWITIBO Alemu L. (2021). “Carbon Decoupling and Economic Growth in Africa: Evidence from Production and Consumption-Based Carbon Emissions”, Resources, Environment and Sustainability, 6, 100040.
  • VADLAMANNATI Krishna Chaitanya (2008). “Exploring the Relationship between Military Spending & Income Inequality in South Asia”, William Davidson Institute Working Paper, 918, 56-75.
  • WESTERLUND Joakim (2008). “Panel Cointegration Tests of the Fisher Effect”, Journal of Applied Econometrics, 23:2, 193-233.
  • WILKINS Nigel (2004). “Defence Expenditure and Economic Growth: Evidence from a Panel of 85 Countries”, School of Finance and Economics, University of Technology, Sydney PO Box 123.
  • ZHANG Ying, WANG Rui, and YAO Dongqi (2017). “Does Defence Expenditure Have a Spillover Effect on Income Inequality? A Cross-Regional Analysis in China”, Defence and Peace Economics, 28:6, 731-749.
  • KAMALI Sam (2023). “Military Expenditure, Institutional Quality and the Sustainable Development Goals: Insight into the Dynamics of a Large-Scale Attempt at Sustainable Development”, Uppsala University Bachelor Thesis, 2023, p. 14. https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2:1742856, accessed 26.05.2024.
  • NOUBISSI DOMGUIA Edmond and POUMIE Boker (2019). “Economic Growth, Military Spending and Environmental Degradation in Africa”, MPRA Paper No. 97455. https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/ id/eprint/97455, accessed 15.05.2024.
  • “SIPRI Military Expenditure Database”, Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, 2024. https:// www.sipri.org/databases/milex, accessed 01.05.2024.
  • “The Sustainable Development Index Database”, 2024, https://www.sustainabledevelopmentindex.org/timeseries, accessed 14.05.2024.
There are 57 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language English
Subjects International Relations (Other)
Journal Section Articles
Authors

Emre Akusta 0000-0002-6147-5443

Publication Date August 23, 2024
Submission Date July 5, 2024
Acceptance Date August 18, 2024
Published in Issue Year 2024 Volume: 20 Issue: 48

Cite

Chicago Akusta, Emre. “Does Military Expenditure Impede Sustainable Development? Empirical Evidence from NATO Countries”. Güvenlik Stratejileri Dergisi 20, no. 48 (August 2024): 195-214. https://doi.org/10.17752/guvenlikstrtj.1511309.