Açlık grevinin disiplinler arası açıklamasına kuramsal bir öneri: kimlik füzyonu teorisini yeniden düşünmek

Yıl 2023, , 240 - 254, 30.06.2023

Cansu Parlak

https://doi.org/10.17218/hititsbd.1265847

Öz

Hapishanelerdeki açlık grevlerinin ve kendini yakmanın rasyonel olarak benimsenen tepkiler mi yoksa mahkumların yaygın olarak geliştirdiği ruhsal bozuklukların sonuçları mı olduğu konusunda bir tartışma var. Öz-feda üzerine nörobiyolojik ve evrimsel araştırmalar ve deneyler, düşünsel ve politik bakış açılarından yoksun oldukları için öz-feda davranışını bir dereceye kadar açıklayabilir. Öz-feda davranışın nedenleri, intiharı önleme amacıyla tıp doktorları tarafından yorumlanmıştır. Bu tür öz-feda davranışları, cezaevlerinde de görülen intihar davranışıyla karıştırılmamalıdır. Hapishanede kendini feda etme, bir siyasi katılım yöntemi anlamına gelebilir ve bir mahkûmun serotenerjik disregülasyon veya başka herhangi bir psikopatolojiyle ilgili akıl hastalığının bir sonucu değil, zor durumlara ve adaletsizliklere makul bir tepki olabilir. Grup özdeşleşmesi, ideoloji, tarihsel olumlama ve şehit miti fedakarlığın benimsenmesi/yok sayılması ve fedakârlık davranışının ciddiyetinin belirlenmesindeki nedenlerdir. Bu makale, kendini feda etme davranışını açıklamada sosyal psikoloji, ideoloji ve tarihsel miras arasında ayrılmaz bir ilişki olduğunu ileri sürerek bu ikilemi ele almaya çalışmaktadır. Bu amaçla, normatif ve rasyonel şiddet kullanım teorilerini fedakarlığa uyarlayanak ve açlık grevlerinin ardındaki melez saikleri aranacaktır. Ardından aşırı grup yanlısı davranışlara ışık tutan Kimlik Füzyon Teorisi ile özverili davranış arasındaki bağlantı tartışılacaktır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Cezaevi, Öz-Feda, Açlık Grevi, Kimlik Füzyonu, Şiddet

A theoretical suggestion to interdisciplinary explanation of hunger strike: re-thinking the identity fusion theory

Öz

There has been a controversy on whether hunger strikes and self-immolations in prisons are rationally adopted reactions or consequences of mental disorders that prisoners commonly develop. Neurobiological and evolutionary researches and experiments on self-sacrifice may explain sacrificial behavior to some extent, as they lack ideational and political perspectives. The reasons for sacrificial behavior have been interpreted (correctly, yet not thoroughly) by medical practitioners for prevention. Such self-sacrificing behavior must not be confused with suicidal behavior, which is also prevailing in prisons. Self-sacrifice in prison may imply a method of political participation, and not a result of a prisoner's mental illness related to serotonergic dysregulation or any other psychopathology, but a reasonable response to difficult situations and injustices. Group identification, ideology, historical affirmation, and martyr mythology are the reasons for adopting / disregarding self-sacrifice and determining the severity of self-sacrificing behavior. This paper attempts to address this dilemma, suggesting there is an inextricable relation between social psychology, ideology and historical heritage in explaining self-sacrificial behavior. To this end, the theories of normative and rational uses of violence to self-sacrifice will be adapted and hybrid motive behind hunger strikes will be sought. Then, the connection of Identity Fusion Theory, which sheds light on extreme pro-group behaviors, and self-sacrifice behavior will be discussed.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Prison, Self-Sacrifice, Hunger Strike, Identity Fusion, Violence

Kaynakça

• Aberson, C.L., Healy, M. and Romero, V. (2000). In-group Bias and Self-Esteem: A Meta-Analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4(2), 157–173.
• Barilan, Y.M. (2017). The role of doctors in hunger strikes. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal, 27(3), 341–369. doi: 10.1353/ken.2017.0031
• Bendtsen, K. (2018). On the force-feeding of prisoners on hunger strike. HEC Forum, 31(1), 29–48. doi: 10.1007/s10730-018-9365-4
• Best, J. and Luckenbill, D. (1994). Organizing Deviance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
• Dember, W.N. (1991). Cognition, motivation, and emotion: ideology revisited. In R.R. Hoffman and D.S. Palermo (Eds.) Cognition and the symbolic processes: applied and ecological perspectives (pp.153–162). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
• Durkheim, É. (2005). Suicide: A Study in Sociology. New York: Routledge.
• Durmaz, O., Aktaş, S., and Kumsar, N. (2020) From psychosis to Wernicke encephalopathy: a case of hunger strike in prison, Neurocase, 26(4), 248-251. doi:10.1080/13554794.2020.1786587
• Eichelberger, M., Joray, M.L., Perrig, M., Bodmer, M., and Stanga, Z. (2014). Management of patients during hunger strike and refeeding phase. Nutrition, 30(11), 1372-1378. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2014.04.007
• Farnham, S. D. (1999). From implicit self-esteem to in-Group favoritism. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 60(4-B), 191. Retrieved from: https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1999-95020-005
• Fayeulle S, Renou F, Protais E., Hédouin, V., Wartel, G., and Luc Yvin, J. (2010). Management of the hunger strike in prison. Presse Medicale. 39(10), 217-222. doi:10.1016/j.lpm.2010.01.012
• Fazel, S., Ramesh, T., and Hawton, K. (2017). Suicide in prisons: an international study of prevalence and contributory factors. The Lancet Psychiatry, 4(12), 946–952. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(17)30430-3
• Fiske, A.P. (1992). The four elementary forms of sociality: framework for a unified theory of social relations. Psychological Review, 99(4), 689–723. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.99.4.689
• Fowler, J.H. and Kam, C.D. (2007). Beyond the self: social identity, altruism, and political participation. The Journal of Politics, 69(3), 813–827. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2508.2007.00577.x
• Fu, F., Tanita, C.E., Christakis, N.A., Wang, L., Rand, D.G., and Nowak, M.A. (2012). Evolution of in-group favoritism. Scientific Reports, 2, 460. doi: 10.1038/srep00460
• Gulati, G., Whelan, D., Spain, E., Meagher, D., and Dunne, C.P. (2017). Hunger strikes in prison: a legal perspective for psychiatrists. Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine, 36(1), 55–60. doi: 10.1017/ipm.2017.61
• Gulati, G., Kelly, B.D., O'Neill, C., O'Connell, P., Linehan, S., Spain, E., Meagher, D., and Dunne, C.P. (2019). The psychiatric management of prisoners on hunger strike: developing a management algorithm using the Delphi technique. Int J Prison Health. 66-75. doi:10.1108/IJPH-06-2017-0030
• Gurr, T.R. (2016). Why Men Rebel, London: Routledge, Taylor and Francis Group.
• Halbertal, M. (2012). On Sacrifice, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
• Haney, C. and Lynch, M. (1997). Regulating prisons of the future: psychological analysis of supermax and solitary confinement. New York University Review of Law and Social Change, XXIII(4), 477–570. doi: 10.1177/0032885501081003005
• Haney, C. (2012). Prison effects in the era of mass incarceration. The Prison Journal, 0(0). doi:10.1177/0032885512448604
• Harris, P. (2000) Hunger strikes and forced feeding in Hong Kong law. Hong Kong Law Journal, 368-375. Retrieved from: https://ssrn.com/abstract=925210
• Heger, A.K. and Gaertner, L. (2018). Testing the identity synergy principle: identity fusion promotes self and group sacrifice. Self and Identity, 17(5), 487–499. doi:10.1080/15298868.2017.1422538
• Jost, J.T. and Amodio, D.M. (2011). Political Ideology as motivated social cognition: behavioral and neuroscientific evidence. Motivation and Emotion, 36(1), 55–64. doi:10.1007/s11031-011-9260-7
• Jost, J.T. and Hunyady, O. (2005). Antecedents and consequences of system-justifying ideologies. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14(5), 260–265. doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00377.x
• Jost, J.T., Napier, J.L., Thorisdottir, H., Gosling, S.D., Palfai, T.P., and Ostafin, B. (2007). Are needs to manage uncertainty and threat associated with political conservatism or ideological extremity? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33(7), 989–1007. doi:10.1177/0146167207301028
• Jost, J.T. (2009). “Elective affinities”: on the psychological bases of left–right differences. Psychological Inquiry, 20(2-3), 129–141. doi: 10.1080/10478400903028599
• Kenny, M.A., Silove, D.M. and Steel, Z. (2004). Legal and ethical implications of medically enforced feeding of detained asylum seekers on hunger strike. Medical Journal of Australia, 180(5), 237–240. doi: 10.5694/j.1326-5377.2004.tb05893.x
• McCarthy, R.M. and Sharp, G. (2010). Nonviolent Action: A Research Guide, New York: Routledge.
• McCauley, C. and Moskalenko, S. (2008). Mechanisms of political radicalization: pathways toward terrorism. Terrorism and Political Violence, 20(3), 415–433. doi:10.1080/09546550802073367
• Öge, A.E., Boyacıyan, A., Gökmen, E., Kınay, D., Şahin, H., Yazıcı, J., and Gürvit, H. (2000). Neuromuscular consequences of prolonged hunger strike: an electrophysiological study. Clinical Neurophysiology, 111(11), 2064–2070. doi:10.1016/s1388-2457(00)00458-2
• Rand, D.G., Pfeiffer, T., Dreber, A., Sheketoff, R.W., Wernerfelt, N.C., and Benkler, Y. (2009). Dynamic remodeling of in-group bias during the 2008 presidential election. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(15), 6187–6191. doi:10.1073/pnas.0811552106
• Ross, M.H. (2001). Psychocultural interpretations and dramas: identity dynamics in ethnic conflict. Political Psychology, 22(1), 157–178. doi: 10.1111/0162-895X.00231
• Scanlan, S.J., Stoll, L.C. and Lumm, K. (2018). Starving for change: the hunger strike and nonviolent action, 1906–2004. Coy, P.G. (Ed.) Research In Social Movements, Conflicts and Change, 28, 275–323. Emerald Group Publishing Limited, Bingley.
• Sharp, G. (2007). Waging Nonviolent Struggle: 20th Century Practice And 21st Century Potential, Boston, MA: Extending Horizons Books.
• Smelser, N.J. (2010). Theory of Collective Behavior, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon England: Routledge.
• Sosis, R. and Ruffle, B.J. (2003). Religious ritual and cooperation: testing for a relationship on Israeli religious and secular kibbutzim. Current Anthropology, 44(5), 713–722. doi:10.1016/S0163-786X(08)28010-9
• Stern, P.C. (1995). Why do people sacrifice for their nations? Political Psychology, 16(2), 217-235. doi: 10.2307/3791830
• Swann, W.B. and Buhrmester, M.D. (2015). Identity fusion. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 24(1), 52–57. doi: 10.1177/0963721414551363
• Tajfel, H. (2010). Human groups and social categories: studies in social psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Tajfel, H. and Turner, J. (2001). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In M. A. Hogg and D. Abrams (Eds.) Intergroup relations: essential readings (pp. 94–109). Psychology Press.
• Tajfel, H. and Turner, J. C. (2004). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In J. T. Jost and J. Sidanius (Eds.), Political psychology: key readings (pp. 276–293). Psychology Press.
• Tilly, C. (1998). From mobilization to revolution. New York: McGraw-Hill.
• Tilly, C. (2000). States in transition and the challenge of ethnic conflict (Russian Academy of Sciences/US National Academy of Sciences). In Violent and Non-Violent Trajectories in Contentious Politics. Moscow.
• Turner, J.C., Oakes, P.J., Haslam, S.A., and McGarty, C. (1994). Self and collective: cognition and social context. Personality And Social Psychology Bulletin, 20(5), 454–463. doi:10.1177/0146167294205002
• Varga, J.Z. (2018). Competition between social groups, in-group favoritism and population-level cooperation. Cliodynamics: The Journal of Quantitative History and Cultural Evolution, 9(1). 119-129. doi: 10.21237/C7clio9133100
• Verkuyten, M. and Hagendoorn, L. (2002). In-group favoritism and self-esteem: the role of identity level and trait valence. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 5(4), 285–297. doi: 10.1177/13684302020050040
• Wei, M. and Brendel, R.W. (2010). Psychiatry and hunger strikes. Harvard Human Rights Journal, 23(1), 75-110. Retrieved from: https://harvardhrj.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2010/10/75-110.pdf
• Whitehouse, H., Jong, J., Buhrmester, M.D., Gómez, A., Bastian, B., Kavanagh, C.M., Newson, M., Matthews, M., Lanman, J.A., McKay, R., and Gavrilets, S. (2017). The evolution of extreme cooperation via shared dysphoric experiences. Scientific Reports, 7(1). doi:10.1038/srep44292
• Whitehouse, H. (1996). Rites of terror: emotion, metaphor and memory in Melanesian initiation cults. The Journal of The Royal Anthropological Institute, 2(4), 703-715. doi:10.2307/3034304
• Xenakis, S.N. (2017). Ethics dilemmas in managing hunger strikes. The Journal of The American Academy of Psychiatry and The Law, 45(3), 311–315. Retrieved from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28939728/
• Yzerbyt, V., Dumont, M., Mathieu, B., Gordijn, E.H., and Wigboldus, D. (2006). Social comparison and group-based emotions. Social Comparison and Social Psychology, 174–205. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. doi: 10.1017/CBO9780511584329.010