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Türkiye’de çalışma süreleri, aşırı çalışma ve gelir esnekliği

Year 2022, Volume: 15 Issue: 2, 506 - 528, 31.12.2022
https://doi.org/10.17218/hititsbd.1178972

Abstract

Bu makalede ilk olarak Türkiye’de çalışma sürelerinin ve aşırı çalışma oranlarının çeşitli gruplarda 2004-2019 döneminde nasıl değişim gösterdikleri ortaya konulmaktadır. İkinci olarak, çalışma sürelerinin gelir esneklikleri çeşitli gruplar için tahmin edilmektedir. Makalenin temel amacı Türkiye’de neredeyse yok mesabesinde olan çalışma sürelerine dönük literatürün oluşumuna bir katkı sağlamaktır. Bu amaçla 2004-2019 yılları için TÜİK Hanehalkı İşgücü Araştırması (HİA) verileri kullanılmıştır. Yıllık HİA verileri birbirleriyle uyumlu hale getirilerek birleştirilmiş ve yaklaşık 2 milyon gözlemden oluşan kapsamlı bir veri seti oluşturulmuştur. Çalışma sürelerinin ücret esnekliği en küçük kareler yöntemi kullanılarak tahmin edilmiştir. Elde ettiğimiz temel sonuçlara göre; 1) Türkiye’de çalışma süreleri ve aşırı çalışma oranları çok yüksektir ve 2) her ikisi de 2011-2019 döneminde önemli ölçüde gerilemiş olmakla birlikte, Türkiye her ikisinde de dünyada ilk sıralarda kalmayı sürdürmüştür. Yine, 3) Türkiye’de çalışma süreleri bilhassa az eğitimlilerde, düşük ücretlilerde ve erkeklerde daha yüksektir. Ayrıca, 4) çalışma süreleri ilgili süreçte en çok tam da bu gruplarda düşmüş ve böylece gruplar arası farklılıklar hatırı sayılır ölçüde azalmıştır. Dahası, 5) çalışma süreleri özel sektörde kamuya kıyasla çok daha yüksektir ve 6) 2011-2019 döneminde çalışma sürelerinde yaşanan gerilemenin neredeyse tamamı özel sektörde gerçekleşirken çalışma süreleri kamuda neredeyse hiç değişmemiştir. Öte yandan; 1) gelir esnekliği tam zamanlı ve ücretli çalışanlarda oldukça düşük ve negatiftir. Ayrıca, tam zamanlı ve ücretli çalışanlar için olmak üzere; 2) en yüksek ve en düşük gelir gruplarında gelir esnekliği epey düşük ve pozitif iken 3) diğer gelir gruplarında esneklik görece yüksek ve negatiftir.

References

  • Alesina, A., Glaeser, E. ve Sacerdote, B. (2005). Work and leisure in the United States and Europe: Why so different?. NBER Macroeconomics Annual, 20, 1–64. doi: 10.3386/w11278
  • Baykal, B. (2014). Çalışma saatleri iş–aile çatışması açısından belirleyici midir? erkek çalışanlar açısından bir inceleme. Çalışma İlişkileri Dergisi, 5(2), 10–23. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/cider/issue/29531/316973
  • Bıck, A., Fuchs-Schündeln, N. ve Lagakos, D. (2018). How do hours worked vary with income? cross-country evidence and implications. American Economic Review. 108(1), 170–199. doi: 10.1257/aer.20151720
  • Bielenski, H., Bosch, G. ve Wagner, A. (2002). Working time preferences in sixteen European countries, European Foundation for the Improvement of living and working conditions. https://www.eurofound.europa.eu/publications/report/2002/working-conditions/working-time-preferences-in-sixteen-european-countries
  • Booth, A. L. ve Van Ours, J. C. (2008). Job satisfaction and family happiness: the part‐time work puzzle. The Economic Journal, 118(526), F77–F99. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-0297.2007.02117.x
  • Büken, E. ve Büken, B. (2013). Çalışma süreleri ve ücretler çalışan çocuğun kabullenilmiş istismarı mı? çıraklık okullarında yapılan bir çalışma. Adli Tıp Bülteni, 18(2), 48. https://cms.galenos.com.tr/Uploads/Article_44303/TBLM-18-39.pdf
  • Burger, A. S. (2020). Extreme work hours in Western Europe and North America: diverging trends since the 1970s. Socio-Economic Review, 18(4), 1065–1087. doi: 10.1093/ser/mwy020
  • Burgoon, B. ve Baxandall, P. (2004). Three worlds of working time: the partisan and welfare politics of work hours in industrialized countries. Politics ve Society, 32(4), 439–473. doi: 10.1177/0032329204269983
  • Burke, R. J., Koyuncu, M., Fiksenbaum, L. ve Acar, F. T. (2009). Work hours, work intensity, satisfactions and psychological well-being among Turkish manufacturing managers. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 5(2), 12–30. doi: 10.5964/ejop.v5i2.264
  • Collewet, M. ve Sauermann, J. (2017). Working hours and productivity. Labour Economics, 47, 96–106. doi: 10.1016/j.labeco.2017.03.006
  • Costa, D. L. (2000). The wage and the length of the work day: from the 1890s to 1991. Journal of Labor Economics, 18(1), 156–181. doi:10.1086/209954
  • Delmez, F. ve Vandenberghe, V. (2018). Long working hours make us less productive but also less costly. Labour, 32(4), 259–287. doi:10.1111/labr.12128
  • Drago, R. W., Black, D. ve Wooden, M. (2005). The existence and persistence of long work hours. IZA Working Papers, 1720. Erişim adresi: https://www.iza.org/publications/dp/1720/the-existence-and-persistence-of-long-work-hours
  • Feldman, D. C. (2002). Managers’ propensity to work longer hours: A multilevel analysis. Human Resource Management Review, 12(3), 339–357. doi: 10.1016/S1053-4822(02)00064-5
  • Ganster, D. C., Rosen, C. C. ve Fisher, G. G. (2018). Long working hours and well-being: what we know, what we do not know, and what we need to know. Journal of Business and Psychology, 33(1), 25–39. doi: 10.1007/s10869-016-9478-1
  • Golden, L. (2009). A brief history of long work time and the contemporary sources of overwork. Journal of Business Ethics, 84(2), 217–227. doi: 10.1007/s10551-008-9698-z
  • Huberman, M. ve Minns, C. (2007). The times they are not changin’: days and hours of work in old and new worlds, 1870–2000. Explorations in Economic History, 44(4), 538–567. doi: 10.1016/j.eeh.2007.03.002
  • Kasser, T. ve Sheldon, K. M. (2009). Time affluence as a path toward personal happiness and ethical business practice: Empirical evidence from four studies. Journal of Business Ethics, 84(2), 243–255. doi: 10.1007/s10551-008-9696-1
  • Koyuncu, M., Burke, R. J. ve Wolpin, J. (2012). Work‐family conflict, satisfactions and psychological well‐being among women managers and professionals in Turkey. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 27(3), 202-213. doi: 10.1108/17542411211221286
  • Kuzgun, İ. ve Aydın, D. G. (2009). Türkiye’de ekonomik büyüme-istihdam ilişkisi ve çalışma süreleri. “İş, Güç” Endüstri İlişkileri ve İnsan Kaynakları Dergisi, 11(3), 51–63. doi: 10.4026/1303-2860.2009.0110.x
  • Leslie, D. (1984). The productivity of hours in US manufacturing industries. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 486–490. Erişim adresi: https://www.jstor.org/stable/1925007
  • Messenger, J. C., Lee, S. ve McCann, D. (2007). Working time around the world: Trends in working hours, laws, and policies in a global comparative perspective. London: Routledge.
  • Mohanty, M. S. ve Golestani, A. (2017). How is the worker’s weekly hour related to wage over the life cycle? The US evidence. Applied Economics, 49(26), 2532-2544. doi: 10.1080/00036846.2016.1243210
  • Padavıc, I., Ely, R. J. ve Reid, E. M. (2020). Explaining the persistence of gender inequality: The work–family narrative as a social defense against the 24/7 work culture. Administrative Science Quarterly, 65(1), 61–111. doi: 10.1177/0001839219832310
  • Pencavel, J. (2015). The productivity of working hours. The Economic Journal, 125(589), 2052–2076. doi: 10.1111/ecoj.12166
  • Pouwels, B., Siegers, J. ve Vlasblom, J. D. (2008). Income, working hours, and happiness. Economics Letters, 99(1), 72–74. doi: 10.1016/j.econlet.2007.05.032
  • Rogerson, R. (2006). Understanding differences in hours worked. Review of Economic Dynamics, 9(3), 365–409. doi: 10.1016/j.red.2006.05.002
  • Rutherford, S. (2001). Are you going home already? the long hours culture, women managers and patriarchal closure. Time ve Society, 10(2/3), 259–276. doi: 10.1177/0961463X01010002006
  • Shepard, E. ve Clifton, T. (2000). Are longer hours reducing productivity in manufacturing? International Journal of Manpower, 21(7), 540-553. doi: 10.1108/01437720010378999
  • Sousa-Poza, A. ve Ziegler, A. (2003). Asymmetric information about workers’ productivity as a cause for inefficient long working hours. Labour Economics, 10(6), 727–747. doi: 10.1016/S0927-5371(03)00016-2
  • Stier, H. ve Lewin-Epstein, N. (2003). Time to work: A comparative analysis of preferences for working hours, Work and Occupations. 30(3), 302–326. doi: 10.1177/0730888403253897
  • Sundötrom, M. (1991). Part-time work in Sweden: trends and equality effects. Journal of Economic Issues, 25(1), 167–178. doi: 10.1080/00213624.1991.11505134
  • Tatlıyer, M. ve Gur, N. (2022). Individualism and working hours: macro-level evidence. Social Indicators Research, 159, 733–755. doi: 10.1007/s11205-021-02771-y
  • Tatlıyer, M. (2020). İstihdamı paylaşmak: İşsizliğin nedenleri ve çözümü. İstanbul: SETA Yayınları.
  • Taylor, J. E. (2011). Work‐sharing during the Great Depression: did the ‘president’s reemployment agreement’ promote reemployment?. Economica, 78(309), 133–158. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-0335.2009.00804.x
  • Whaples, R. (1990). Winning the eight-hour day, 1909–1919. The Journal of Economic History, 50(2), 393–406. doi: 10.1017/S0022050700036512
  • Zwickl, K., Disslbacher, F. ve Stagl, S. (2016). Work-sharing for a sustainable economy. Ecological Economics, 121, 246–253. doi: 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2015.06.009

Working hours, overworking, and income elasticity in Turkey

Year 2022, Volume: 15 Issue: 2, 506 - 528, 31.12.2022
https://doi.org/10.17218/hititsbd.1178972

Abstract

In this article, we firstly analyze how working hours and overworking evolved for different categories/groups in Turkey during the 2004-2019 period. Second, we estimate income elasticity of working hours for various categories/groups. The main purpose of the article is to contribute to the formation of the literature on working hours in Turkey which is almost non-existent. For this purpose, we exploit TÜİK Household Labor Force Survey (HLFS) data for the years 2004-2019. We harmonized and combined the annual HLFS data to create a comprehensive dataset consisting of approximately 2 million observations. The wage elasticity of working hours was estimated using the ordinary least squares method. The main results we obtained are; 1) working hours and overworking rates are very high in Turkey and 2) although both decreased significantly in the period of 2011-2019, Turkey still ranks very high in both in the world. In addition, 3) working hours are particularly high for workers with less education, low income, and men. However, 4) working hours decreased the most for these very groups and thus the differences between the groups decreased considerably. Moreover, 5) working hours are much higher in the private sector than in the public sector, and 6) almost all of the decline in working hours in the 2011-2019 period occurred in the private sector, while working hours remained almost unchanged in the public sector. On the other hand; 1) income elasticity is very low and negative for full-time employees, In addition, for full-time and paid employees; 2) income elasticity is quite low and positive in the highest and lowest income groups, 3) and it is relatively high and negative in other income groups.

References

  • Alesina, A., Glaeser, E. ve Sacerdote, B. (2005). Work and leisure in the United States and Europe: Why so different?. NBER Macroeconomics Annual, 20, 1–64. doi: 10.3386/w11278
  • Baykal, B. (2014). Çalışma saatleri iş–aile çatışması açısından belirleyici midir? erkek çalışanlar açısından bir inceleme. Çalışma İlişkileri Dergisi, 5(2), 10–23. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/cider/issue/29531/316973
  • Bıck, A., Fuchs-Schündeln, N. ve Lagakos, D. (2018). How do hours worked vary with income? cross-country evidence and implications. American Economic Review. 108(1), 170–199. doi: 10.1257/aer.20151720
  • Bielenski, H., Bosch, G. ve Wagner, A. (2002). Working time preferences in sixteen European countries, European Foundation for the Improvement of living and working conditions. https://www.eurofound.europa.eu/publications/report/2002/working-conditions/working-time-preferences-in-sixteen-european-countries
  • Booth, A. L. ve Van Ours, J. C. (2008). Job satisfaction and family happiness: the part‐time work puzzle. The Economic Journal, 118(526), F77–F99. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-0297.2007.02117.x
  • Büken, E. ve Büken, B. (2013). Çalışma süreleri ve ücretler çalışan çocuğun kabullenilmiş istismarı mı? çıraklık okullarında yapılan bir çalışma. Adli Tıp Bülteni, 18(2), 48. https://cms.galenos.com.tr/Uploads/Article_44303/TBLM-18-39.pdf
  • Burger, A. S. (2020). Extreme work hours in Western Europe and North America: diverging trends since the 1970s. Socio-Economic Review, 18(4), 1065–1087. doi: 10.1093/ser/mwy020
  • Burgoon, B. ve Baxandall, P. (2004). Three worlds of working time: the partisan and welfare politics of work hours in industrialized countries. Politics ve Society, 32(4), 439–473. doi: 10.1177/0032329204269983
  • Burke, R. J., Koyuncu, M., Fiksenbaum, L. ve Acar, F. T. (2009). Work hours, work intensity, satisfactions and psychological well-being among Turkish manufacturing managers. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 5(2), 12–30. doi: 10.5964/ejop.v5i2.264
  • Collewet, M. ve Sauermann, J. (2017). Working hours and productivity. Labour Economics, 47, 96–106. doi: 10.1016/j.labeco.2017.03.006
  • Costa, D. L. (2000). The wage and the length of the work day: from the 1890s to 1991. Journal of Labor Economics, 18(1), 156–181. doi:10.1086/209954
  • Delmez, F. ve Vandenberghe, V. (2018). Long working hours make us less productive but also less costly. Labour, 32(4), 259–287. doi:10.1111/labr.12128
  • Drago, R. W., Black, D. ve Wooden, M. (2005). The existence and persistence of long work hours. IZA Working Papers, 1720. Erişim adresi: https://www.iza.org/publications/dp/1720/the-existence-and-persistence-of-long-work-hours
  • Feldman, D. C. (2002). Managers’ propensity to work longer hours: A multilevel analysis. Human Resource Management Review, 12(3), 339–357. doi: 10.1016/S1053-4822(02)00064-5
  • Ganster, D. C., Rosen, C. C. ve Fisher, G. G. (2018). Long working hours and well-being: what we know, what we do not know, and what we need to know. Journal of Business and Psychology, 33(1), 25–39. doi: 10.1007/s10869-016-9478-1
  • Golden, L. (2009). A brief history of long work time and the contemporary sources of overwork. Journal of Business Ethics, 84(2), 217–227. doi: 10.1007/s10551-008-9698-z
  • Huberman, M. ve Minns, C. (2007). The times they are not changin’: days and hours of work in old and new worlds, 1870–2000. Explorations in Economic History, 44(4), 538–567. doi: 10.1016/j.eeh.2007.03.002
  • Kasser, T. ve Sheldon, K. M. (2009). Time affluence as a path toward personal happiness and ethical business practice: Empirical evidence from four studies. Journal of Business Ethics, 84(2), 243–255. doi: 10.1007/s10551-008-9696-1
  • Koyuncu, M., Burke, R. J. ve Wolpin, J. (2012). Work‐family conflict, satisfactions and psychological well‐being among women managers and professionals in Turkey. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 27(3), 202-213. doi: 10.1108/17542411211221286
  • Kuzgun, İ. ve Aydın, D. G. (2009). Türkiye’de ekonomik büyüme-istihdam ilişkisi ve çalışma süreleri. “İş, Güç” Endüstri İlişkileri ve İnsan Kaynakları Dergisi, 11(3), 51–63. doi: 10.4026/1303-2860.2009.0110.x
  • Leslie, D. (1984). The productivity of hours in US manufacturing industries. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 486–490. Erişim adresi: https://www.jstor.org/stable/1925007
  • Messenger, J. C., Lee, S. ve McCann, D. (2007). Working time around the world: Trends in working hours, laws, and policies in a global comparative perspective. London: Routledge.
  • Mohanty, M. S. ve Golestani, A. (2017). How is the worker’s weekly hour related to wage over the life cycle? The US evidence. Applied Economics, 49(26), 2532-2544. doi: 10.1080/00036846.2016.1243210
  • Padavıc, I., Ely, R. J. ve Reid, E. M. (2020). Explaining the persistence of gender inequality: The work–family narrative as a social defense against the 24/7 work culture. Administrative Science Quarterly, 65(1), 61–111. doi: 10.1177/0001839219832310
  • Pencavel, J. (2015). The productivity of working hours. The Economic Journal, 125(589), 2052–2076. doi: 10.1111/ecoj.12166
  • Pouwels, B., Siegers, J. ve Vlasblom, J. D. (2008). Income, working hours, and happiness. Economics Letters, 99(1), 72–74. doi: 10.1016/j.econlet.2007.05.032
  • Rogerson, R. (2006). Understanding differences in hours worked. Review of Economic Dynamics, 9(3), 365–409. doi: 10.1016/j.red.2006.05.002
  • Rutherford, S. (2001). Are you going home already? the long hours culture, women managers and patriarchal closure. Time ve Society, 10(2/3), 259–276. doi: 10.1177/0961463X01010002006
  • Shepard, E. ve Clifton, T. (2000). Are longer hours reducing productivity in manufacturing? International Journal of Manpower, 21(7), 540-553. doi: 10.1108/01437720010378999
  • Sousa-Poza, A. ve Ziegler, A. (2003). Asymmetric information about workers’ productivity as a cause for inefficient long working hours. Labour Economics, 10(6), 727–747. doi: 10.1016/S0927-5371(03)00016-2
  • Stier, H. ve Lewin-Epstein, N. (2003). Time to work: A comparative analysis of preferences for working hours, Work and Occupations. 30(3), 302–326. doi: 10.1177/0730888403253897
  • Sundötrom, M. (1991). Part-time work in Sweden: trends and equality effects. Journal of Economic Issues, 25(1), 167–178. doi: 10.1080/00213624.1991.11505134
  • Tatlıyer, M. ve Gur, N. (2022). Individualism and working hours: macro-level evidence. Social Indicators Research, 159, 733–755. doi: 10.1007/s11205-021-02771-y
  • Tatlıyer, M. (2020). İstihdamı paylaşmak: İşsizliğin nedenleri ve çözümü. İstanbul: SETA Yayınları.
  • Taylor, J. E. (2011). Work‐sharing during the Great Depression: did the ‘president’s reemployment agreement’ promote reemployment?. Economica, 78(309), 133–158. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-0335.2009.00804.x
  • Whaples, R. (1990). Winning the eight-hour day, 1909–1919. The Journal of Economic History, 50(2), 393–406. doi: 10.1017/S0022050700036512
  • Zwickl, K., Disslbacher, F. ve Stagl, S. (2016). Work-sharing for a sustainable economy. Ecological Economics, 121, 246–253. doi: 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2015.06.009
There are 37 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language Turkish
Journal Section Articles
Authors

Mevlüt Tatlıyer 0000-0001-8115-7226

Hüseyin Kaya 0000-0002-2231-9675

Publication Date December 31, 2022
Submission Date September 22, 2022
Published in Issue Year 2022 Volume: 15 Issue: 2

Cite

APA Tatlıyer, M., & Kaya, H. (2022). Türkiye’de çalışma süreleri, aşırı çalışma ve gelir esnekliği. Hitit Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 15(2), 506-528. https://doi.org/10.17218/hititsbd.1178972
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