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Pros and cons of corruption to income inequality: an extensive literature survey

Year 2023, Volume: 16 Issue: 2, 582 - 600, 31.12.2023
https://doi.org/10.17218/hititsbd.1330997

Abstract

Corruption, a universal concept with deep historical roots, permeates societies and has varying implications on the economies. This study reviews the existing literature on corruption, with a particular focus on how corruption shapes income inequality, using an analogy of sand- versus grease-the-wheels hypotheses to explore the positive and negative aspects of corruption. Our aim is to contribute to the corruption literature by presenting theoretical and empirical insights in a clear and traceable manner. Previous studies on the relationship between corruption and income inequality have produced mixed results, which can be attributed to variations in data and methodologies. Some studies show positive associations between corruption and income inequality, while others show negative associations, echoing the controversy surrounding the sand- and grease-the-wheels hypotheses. However, there is also scant research suggesting a non-linear relationship between corruption and income inequality, characterized by an inverted U-shaped pattern. All of these diverse findings have important implications for policymakers, emphasizing the need for comprehensive reforms that address corruption and simultaneously tackle the immediate challenges faced by low-income individuals during the transitional period. In conclusion, this study systematically discusses the implications of these findings for policymakers and researchers, highlighting the relevance of this research for shaping effective policies and further investigations in this field.

References

  • Adams, S. and Klobodu, E.K.M. (2016). Financial development, control of corruption and income inequality. International Review of Applied Economics, 30(6), 790–808. doi:10.1080/02692171.2016.1208740
  • Aman Ullah, M. and Ahmad, E. (2016). Inequality and Corruption: Evidence from Panel Data. Forman Journal of Economic Studies, 12, 1–20. doi:10.32368/FJES.20161201
  • Andres, A.R. and Ramlogan-Dobson, C. (2011). Is Corruption Really Bad for Inequality? Evidence from Latin America. Journal of Development Studies, 47(7), 959–976. doi: 10.1080/00220388.2010.509784
  • Apergis, N., Dincer, O.C., and Payne, J.E. (2010). The relationship between corruption and income inequality in U.S. states: Evidence from a panel cointegration and error correction model. Public Choice, 145(1–2), 125–135. doi: 10.1007/s11127-009-9557-1
  • Atkinson, A. B. (1970). On the measurement of inequality. Journal of Economic Theory, 2(3), 244–263. doi: 10.1016/0022-0531(70)90039-6
  • Bardhan, P. (1997). Corruption and Development: A Review of Issues. Journal of Economic Literature, 35(3), 1320–1346. Retrieved from: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2729979
  • Bayar, Y. and Aytemiz, L. (2019). The Misery Index, Corruption and Income Inequality in Latin American Countries: A Panel Cointegration and Causality Analysis. Scientific Annals of Economics and Business, 66(3), 309–319. doi: 10.47743/saeb-2019-0024
  • Berggren, N. and Bjørnskov, C. (2020). Corruption, judicial accountability and inequality: Unfair procedures may benefit the worst-off. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 170, 341–354. doi: 10.1016/j.jebo.2019.12.010
  • Birdsall, N. and Londoño, J.L. (1997). Asset inequality matters: An assessment of the World Bank’s approach to poverty reduction. The American Economic Review, 87(2), 32–37. Retrieved from: https://ideas.repec.org/a/aea/aecrev/v87y1997i2p32-37.html
  • Blackburn, K. and Forgues-Puccio, G.F. (2007). Distribution and development in a model of misgovernance. European Economic Review, 51(6), 1534–1563. Retrieved from: https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/eecrev/v51y2007i6p1534-1563.html
  • Blackburn, K. and Forgues-Puccio, G.F. (2009). Why is corruption less harmful in some countries than in others?. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 72(3), 797-810. doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2009.08.009
  • Chong, A. and Calderón, C. (2000). Institutional Quality and Income Distribution. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 48(4), 761–786. doi: 10.1086/452476
  • Chong, A. and Gradstein, M. (2007). Inequality and institutions. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 89(3), 454–465. Retrieved from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/40043041
  • Cobham, A. and Sumner, A. (2013). Is it all about the tails? The Palma measure of income inequality. Center for Global Development Working Paper, 343. Retrieved from: https://www.cgdev.org/publication/it-all-about-tails-palma-measure-income-inequality
  • Cowell, Frank A. (July 1998). Measurement of Inequality (Published in Handbook of Income Distribution, a B Atkinson and F Bourguignon (Eds), 1998). LSE STICERD Research Paper No. 36. Retrieved from:https://ssrn.com/abstract=1094782
  • Dincer, O.C. and Gunalp, B. (2008). Corruption, Income Inequality, and Poverty in the United States. SSRN Electronic Journal. doi: 10.2139/ssrn.1158446
  • Dincer, O. C., and Gunalp, B. (2012). Corruption and Income Inequality in the United States. Contemporary Economic Policy, 30(2), 283–292. doi: 10.1111/j.1465-7287.2011.00262.x
  • Dobson, S., and Ramlogan-Dobson, C. (2010). Is there a trade-off between income inequality and corruption? Evidence from Latin America. Economics Letters, 107(2), 102–104. doi: 10.1016/j.econlet.2009.12.038
  • Dobson, S., and Ramlogan-Dobson, C. (2012). Why is Corruption Less Harmful to Income Inequality in Latin America? World Development, 40(8), 1534–1545. doi: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2012.04.015
  • Dreher, A. and Schneider, F. (2010). Corruption and the shadow economy: An empirical analysis. Public Choice, 144, 215–238. Retrieved from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/40661057
  • Dwiputri, I.N., Arsyad, L. and Pradiptyo, R. (2018). The corruption-income inequality trap: A study of Asian countries. Economics Discussion Papers. Retrieved from: https://www.econstor.eu/handle/10419/184922
  • Fakir, A.M.S., Ahmad, A.U., Hosain, K.M.M., Hossain, M.R. and Gani, R.S. (2017). The comparative effect of corruption and Piketty’s second fundamental law of capitalism on inequality. Economic Analysis and Policy, 55, 90–105. doi: 10.1016/j.eap.2017.04.006
  • Glaeser, E., Scheinkman, J., and Shleifer, A. (2003). The injustice of inequality. Journal of Monetary Economics, 50(1), 199–222. doi: 10.1016/S0304-3932(02)00204-0
  • Gupta, S., Davoodi, H., and Alonso-Terme, R. (2002). Does corruption affect income inequality and poverty? Economics of Governance, 3, 23–45. Retrieved from: https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/wp9876.pdf
  • Gyimah-Brempong, K. (2002). Corruption, economic growth, and income inequality in Africa. Economics of Governance, 3(3), 183–209. doi: 10.1007/s101010200045
  • Gyimah-Brempong, K. and De Gyimah-Brempong, S. M. (2006). Corruption, Growth, and Income Distribution: Are there Regional Differences? Economics of Governance, 7(3), 245–269. doi: 10.1007/s10101-005-0008-2
  • Heywood, P.M. (2014). Measuring corruption: Perspectives, critiques and limits. In Routledge handbook of political corruption (pp. 136–153). London: Routledge
  • Heywood, P.M. and Rose, J. (2014). “Close but no Cigar”: The measurement of corruption. Journal of Public Policy, 34(3), 507–529. doi: 10.1017/S0143814X14000099
  • Hindriks, J., Keen, M., and Muthoo, A. (1999). Corruption, extortion and evasion. Journal of Public Economics, 74(3), 395–430. doi: 10.1016/S0047-2727(99)00030-4
  • Johnston, M. (2005). Syndromes of corruption: Wealth, power, and democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
  • Keefer, P. and Knack, S. (1997). Why don’t poor countries catch up? A cross-national test of an institutional explanation. Economic Inquiry, 35(3), 590–602. doi: 10.1111/j.1465-7295.1997.tb02035.x
  • Kurtz, M.J. and Schrank, A. (2007). Growth and governance: Models, measures, and mechanisms. The Journal of Politics, 69(2), 538–554. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2508.2007.00549.x
  • Leff, N.H. (1964). Economic development through bureaucratic corruption. American Behavioral Scientist, 8(3), 8–14. doi: 10.1177/000276426400800303
  • Li, H., Squire, L., and Zou, H. (1998). Explaining international and intertemporal variations in income inequality. The Economic Journal, 108(446), 26–43. doi: 10.1111/1468-0297.00271
  • Li, H., Xu, L. C., and Zou, H. (2000). Corruption, income distribution, and growth. Economics and Politics, 12(2), 155–182. doi: 10.1111/1468-0343.00073
  • Mauro, P. (1995). Corruption and growth. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 110(3), 681–712. doi: 10.2307/2946696
  • Mauro, P. (1998). Corruption and the composition of government expenditure. Journal of Public Economics, 69(2), 263–279. doi: 10.1016/S0047-2727(98)00025-5
  • Méon, P.-G., and Sekkat, K. (2005). Does corruption grease or sand the wheels of growth? Public Choice, 122, 69–97. doi: 10.1007/s11127-005-3988-0
  • Nel, P. (2020). When bribery helps the poor. Review of Social Economy, 78(4), 507–531. doi:10.1080/00346764.2019.1618482
  • Olken, B.A. (2009). Corruption perceptions vs. Corruption reality. Journal of Public Economics, 93(7–8), 950–964. doi: 10.1016/j.jpubeco.2009.03.001
  • Pedauga, L.E., Pedauga, L.D., and Delgado-Márquez, B.L. (2017). Relationships between corruption, political orientation, and income inequality: Evidence from Latin America. Applied Economics, 49(17), 1689–1705. doi: 10.1080/00036846.2016.1223830
  • Pellegrini, L., and Gerlagh, R. (2004). Corruption’s effect on growth and its transmission channels. Kyklos, 57(3), 429–456. doi: 10.1111/j.0023-5962.2004.00261.x
  • Policardo, L., Sanchez Carrera, E.J., and Risso, W.A. (2019). Causality between income inequality and corruption in OECD countries. World Development Perspectives, 14, 100102. doi: 10.1016/j.wdp.2019.02.013
  • Ravallion, M. (1997). Can high-inequality developing countries escape absolute poverty? Economics Letters, 56(1), 51–57. doi: 10.1016/S0165-1765(97)00117-1
  • Rose-Ackerman, R. 1997. “The Political Economy of Corruption.” In Corruption and the Global Economy. Edited by K. A. Elliott, 31–60. Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics.
  • Rose-Ackerman, S. (1999). Political corruption and democracy. Conn. J. Int’l L., 14, 363. Retrieved from: https://openyls.law.yale.edu/handle/20.500.13051/4975
  • Rose-Ackerman, S. and Palifka, B. J. (2016). Corruption and government: Causes, consequences, and reform. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Tanzi, V. (1998). Corruption around the world: Causes, consequences, scope, and cures. Staff Papers, 45(4), 559–594. doi: 10.2307/3867585
  • Treisman, D. (2007). What have we learned about the causes of corruption from ten years of cross-national empirical research? Annu. Rev. Polit. Sci., 10, 211–244. doi: 10.1146/annurev.polisci.10.081205.095418
  • Uslaner, E.M. (2006). Corruption and inequality. WIDER Research Paper. doi:10.1057/9781137427649_7

Yolsuzluğun gelir eşitsizliği üzerindeki olumlu ve olumsuz etkileri: kapsamlı bir literatür taraması

Year 2023, Volume: 16 Issue: 2, 582 - 600, 31.12.2023
https://doi.org/10.17218/hititsbd.1330997

Abstract

Derin tarihsel köklere sahip evrensel bir kavram olan yolsuzluk, toplumlara nüfuz etmekte ve ekonomiler üzerinde çeşitli etkilere sahip olmaktadır. Bu çalışma “çarkları aşındırma” (sand-the-wheels) ve "çarkları yağlama" (grease-the-wheels) hipotezlerine dayalı bir analoji ile yolsuzluğun gelir dağılımı üzerindeki olumlu ve olumsuz etkilerinin ayrımına odaklanarak yolsuzluk literatürünü incelemektedir. Amacımız, teorik ve ampirik çıkarımları açık ve takip edilebilir bir çerçevede sunarak yolsuzluk literatürüne katkıda bulunmaktır. Yolsuzluk ve gelir eşitsizliği arasındaki ilişki üzerine yapılan önceki çalışmalar, veri ve metodolojilerdeki farklılıklara atfedilebilecek karmaşık sonuçlar ortaya koymaktadır. Bu çalışmalarda, yolsuzluk ve gelir eşitsizliği arasında hem pozitif hem de negatif ilişkilerin olduğu bulunmuştur. Nitekim bu durum, "çarkları aşındırma" ve "çarkları yağlama" hipotezlerini çevreleyen tartışmaları yansıtmaktadır. Bununla birlikte, yolsuzluk ve gelir eşitsizliği arasında ters U yapısına sahip doğrusal olmayan bir ilişki olduğunu öne süren sınırlı sayıda çalışmalar da bulunmaktadır. Tüm bu farklı bulgular yolsuzlukla mücadele ederken aynı zamanda geçiş döneminde düşük gelirli bireylerin karşılaştığı kısa vadeli zorlukları ele alan kapsamlı reformlara duyulan ihtiyacı vurgulamaktadır. Sonuç olarak, bu çalışma politika yapıcılar ve araştırmacılar için bu bulguların çıkarımlarını sistematik olarak tartışmak suretiyle etkili politikaların şekillendirilmesi ve bu alanda daha fazla araştırma yapılması hususunda bu çalışmanın önemini ortaya koymaktadır.

References

  • Adams, S. and Klobodu, E.K.M. (2016). Financial development, control of corruption and income inequality. International Review of Applied Economics, 30(6), 790–808. doi:10.1080/02692171.2016.1208740
  • Aman Ullah, M. and Ahmad, E. (2016). Inequality and Corruption: Evidence from Panel Data. Forman Journal of Economic Studies, 12, 1–20. doi:10.32368/FJES.20161201
  • Andres, A.R. and Ramlogan-Dobson, C. (2011). Is Corruption Really Bad for Inequality? Evidence from Latin America. Journal of Development Studies, 47(7), 959–976. doi: 10.1080/00220388.2010.509784
  • Apergis, N., Dincer, O.C., and Payne, J.E. (2010). The relationship between corruption and income inequality in U.S. states: Evidence from a panel cointegration and error correction model. Public Choice, 145(1–2), 125–135. doi: 10.1007/s11127-009-9557-1
  • Atkinson, A. B. (1970). On the measurement of inequality. Journal of Economic Theory, 2(3), 244–263. doi: 10.1016/0022-0531(70)90039-6
  • Bardhan, P. (1997). Corruption and Development: A Review of Issues. Journal of Economic Literature, 35(3), 1320–1346. Retrieved from: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2729979
  • Bayar, Y. and Aytemiz, L. (2019). The Misery Index, Corruption and Income Inequality in Latin American Countries: A Panel Cointegration and Causality Analysis. Scientific Annals of Economics and Business, 66(3), 309–319. doi: 10.47743/saeb-2019-0024
  • Berggren, N. and Bjørnskov, C. (2020). Corruption, judicial accountability and inequality: Unfair procedures may benefit the worst-off. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 170, 341–354. doi: 10.1016/j.jebo.2019.12.010
  • Birdsall, N. and Londoño, J.L. (1997). Asset inequality matters: An assessment of the World Bank’s approach to poverty reduction. The American Economic Review, 87(2), 32–37. Retrieved from: https://ideas.repec.org/a/aea/aecrev/v87y1997i2p32-37.html
  • Blackburn, K. and Forgues-Puccio, G.F. (2007). Distribution and development in a model of misgovernance. European Economic Review, 51(6), 1534–1563. Retrieved from: https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/eecrev/v51y2007i6p1534-1563.html
  • Blackburn, K. and Forgues-Puccio, G.F. (2009). Why is corruption less harmful in some countries than in others?. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 72(3), 797-810. doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2009.08.009
  • Chong, A. and Calderón, C. (2000). Institutional Quality and Income Distribution. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 48(4), 761–786. doi: 10.1086/452476
  • Chong, A. and Gradstein, M. (2007). Inequality and institutions. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 89(3), 454–465. Retrieved from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/40043041
  • Cobham, A. and Sumner, A. (2013). Is it all about the tails? The Palma measure of income inequality. Center for Global Development Working Paper, 343. Retrieved from: https://www.cgdev.org/publication/it-all-about-tails-palma-measure-income-inequality
  • Cowell, Frank A. (July 1998). Measurement of Inequality (Published in Handbook of Income Distribution, a B Atkinson and F Bourguignon (Eds), 1998). LSE STICERD Research Paper No. 36. Retrieved from:https://ssrn.com/abstract=1094782
  • Dincer, O.C. and Gunalp, B. (2008). Corruption, Income Inequality, and Poverty in the United States. SSRN Electronic Journal. doi: 10.2139/ssrn.1158446
  • Dincer, O. C., and Gunalp, B. (2012). Corruption and Income Inequality in the United States. Contemporary Economic Policy, 30(2), 283–292. doi: 10.1111/j.1465-7287.2011.00262.x
  • Dobson, S., and Ramlogan-Dobson, C. (2010). Is there a trade-off between income inequality and corruption? Evidence from Latin America. Economics Letters, 107(2), 102–104. doi: 10.1016/j.econlet.2009.12.038
  • Dobson, S., and Ramlogan-Dobson, C. (2012). Why is Corruption Less Harmful to Income Inequality in Latin America? World Development, 40(8), 1534–1545. doi: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2012.04.015
  • Dreher, A. and Schneider, F. (2010). Corruption and the shadow economy: An empirical analysis. Public Choice, 144, 215–238. Retrieved from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/40661057
  • Dwiputri, I.N., Arsyad, L. and Pradiptyo, R. (2018). The corruption-income inequality trap: A study of Asian countries. Economics Discussion Papers. Retrieved from: https://www.econstor.eu/handle/10419/184922
  • Fakir, A.M.S., Ahmad, A.U., Hosain, K.M.M., Hossain, M.R. and Gani, R.S. (2017). The comparative effect of corruption and Piketty’s second fundamental law of capitalism on inequality. Economic Analysis and Policy, 55, 90–105. doi: 10.1016/j.eap.2017.04.006
  • Glaeser, E., Scheinkman, J., and Shleifer, A. (2003). The injustice of inequality. Journal of Monetary Economics, 50(1), 199–222. doi: 10.1016/S0304-3932(02)00204-0
  • Gupta, S., Davoodi, H., and Alonso-Terme, R. (2002). Does corruption affect income inequality and poverty? Economics of Governance, 3, 23–45. Retrieved from: https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/wp9876.pdf
  • Gyimah-Brempong, K. (2002). Corruption, economic growth, and income inequality in Africa. Economics of Governance, 3(3), 183–209. doi: 10.1007/s101010200045
  • Gyimah-Brempong, K. and De Gyimah-Brempong, S. M. (2006). Corruption, Growth, and Income Distribution: Are there Regional Differences? Economics of Governance, 7(3), 245–269. doi: 10.1007/s10101-005-0008-2
  • Heywood, P.M. (2014). Measuring corruption: Perspectives, critiques and limits. In Routledge handbook of political corruption (pp. 136–153). London: Routledge
  • Heywood, P.M. and Rose, J. (2014). “Close but no Cigar”: The measurement of corruption. Journal of Public Policy, 34(3), 507–529. doi: 10.1017/S0143814X14000099
  • Hindriks, J., Keen, M., and Muthoo, A. (1999). Corruption, extortion and evasion. Journal of Public Economics, 74(3), 395–430. doi: 10.1016/S0047-2727(99)00030-4
  • Johnston, M. (2005). Syndromes of corruption: Wealth, power, and democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
  • Keefer, P. and Knack, S. (1997). Why don’t poor countries catch up? A cross-national test of an institutional explanation. Economic Inquiry, 35(3), 590–602. doi: 10.1111/j.1465-7295.1997.tb02035.x
  • Kurtz, M.J. and Schrank, A. (2007). Growth and governance: Models, measures, and mechanisms. The Journal of Politics, 69(2), 538–554. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2508.2007.00549.x
  • Leff, N.H. (1964). Economic development through bureaucratic corruption. American Behavioral Scientist, 8(3), 8–14. doi: 10.1177/000276426400800303
  • Li, H., Squire, L., and Zou, H. (1998). Explaining international and intertemporal variations in income inequality. The Economic Journal, 108(446), 26–43. doi: 10.1111/1468-0297.00271
  • Li, H., Xu, L. C., and Zou, H. (2000). Corruption, income distribution, and growth. Economics and Politics, 12(2), 155–182. doi: 10.1111/1468-0343.00073
  • Mauro, P. (1995). Corruption and growth. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 110(3), 681–712. doi: 10.2307/2946696
  • Mauro, P. (1998). Corruption and the composition of government expenditure. Journal of Public Economics, 69(2), 263–279. doi: 10.1016/S0047-2727(98)00025-5
  • Méon, P.-G., and Sekkat, K. (2005). Does corruption grease or sand the wheels of growth? Public Choice, 122, 69–97. doi: 10.1007/s11127-005-3988-0
  • Nel, P. (2020). When bribery helps the poor. Review of Social Economy, 78(4), 507–531. doi:10.1080/00346764.2019.1618482
  • Olken, B.A. (2009). Corruption perceptions vs. Corruption reality. Journal of Public Economics, 93(7–8), 950–964. doi: 10.1016/j.jpubeco.2009.03.001
  • Pedauga, L.E., Pedauga, L.D., and Delgado-Márquez, B.L. (2017). Relationships between corruption, political orientation, and income inequality: Evidence from Latin America. Applied Economics, 49(17), 1689–1705. doi: 10.1080/00036846.2016.1223830
  • Pellegrini, L., and Gerlagh, R. (2004). Corruption’s effect on growth and its transmission channels. Kyklos, 57(3), 429–456. doi: 10.1111/j.0023-5962.2004.00261.x
  • Policardo, L., Sanchez Carrera, E.J., and Risso, W.A. (2019). Causality between income inequality and corruption in OECD countries. World Development Perspectives, 14, 100102. doi: 10.1016/j.wdp.2019.02.013
  • Ravallion, M. (1997). Can high-inequality developing countries escape absolute poverty? Economics Letters, 56(1), 51–57. doi: 10.1016/S0165-1765(97)00117-1
  • Rose-Ackerman, R. 1997. “The Political Economy of Corruption.” In Corruption and the Global Economy. Edited by K. A. Elliott, 31–60. Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics.
  • Rose-Ackerman, S. (1999). Political corruption and democracy. Conn. J. Int’l L., 14, 363. Retrieved from: https://openyls.law.yale.edu/handle/20.500.13051/4975
  • Rose-Ackerman, S. and Palifka, B. J. (2016). Corruption and government: Causes, consequences, and reform. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Tanzi, V. (1998). Corruption around the world: Causes, consequences, scope, and cures. Staff Papers, 45(4), 559–594. doi: 10.2307/3867585
  • Treisman, D. (2007). What have we learned about the causes of corruption from ten years of cross-national empirical research? Annu. Rev. Polit. Sci., 10, 211–244. doi: 10.1146/annurev.polisci.10.081205.095418
  • Uslaner, E.M. (2006). Corruption and inequality. WIDER Research Paper. doi:10.1057/9781137427649_7
There are 50 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language English
Subjects Political Economy Theory, Policy of Treasury, Theory of Treasury
Journal Section Articles
Authors

Abdulkadir Bulut 0000-0001-6351-0583

Tarkan Çavuşoğlu 0000-0002-9479-9241

Early Pub Date December 31, 2023
Publication Date December 31, 2023
Submission Date July 21, 2023
Published in Issue Year 2023 Volume: 16 Issue: 2

Cite

APA Bulut, A., & Çavuşoğlu, T. (2023). Pros and cons of corruption to income inequality: an extensive literature survey. Hitit Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 16(2), 582-600. https://doi.org/10.17218/hititsbd.1330997
Hitit Journal of Social Sciences is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License (CC BY NC).