İKLİM DEĞİŞİKLİĞİNİN DENİZCİLİK İŞLETMELERİNİN REKABET GÜCÜNE ETKİLERİ

Year 2022, Volume: 19 Issue: 49, 154 - 177, 30.06.2022

Elif Koç Cansu Çelik

Abstract

İklim değişikliği, doğal yaşamın korunması ve dünya hayatının devamlılığı için ele alınması gereken önemli bir konudur. Son yıllarda hızla artan küresel ısınma sebebiyle alınan iklim değişikliğine karşı önlemler, diğer pek çok sektörde olduğu gibi denizcilik sektörünü de yakından ilgilendirmektedir. İklim değişikliğinin olumsuz etkilerini azaltmak için denizyolu taşımacılığı işletmelerinin proaktif ve planlı bir uyum sürecine ihtiyacı vardır. Bu aynı zamanda işletmelerin sektördeki rekabetçi üstünlüklerini koruyabilmeleri noktasında bir gerekliliktir. Bu çalışma, iklim değişikliği bağlamında denizyolu taşımacılığı sektöründeki gelişmeleri ortaya koymayı, denizcilik işletmelerine rekabetçi üstünlüklerini koruyabilmeleri noktasında önerilerde bulunmayı ve gelecekte yapılacak çalışmalara yol göstermeyi amaçlamıştır. Bu doğrultuda literatür sistematik şekilde taranmış, denizyolu taşımacılığında yaşanan gelişmeler ortaya koyulmuş, bu bulgular ışığında da rekabetçi güçlerini koruyabilmeleri noktasında denizcilik işletmelerine tavsiyelerde bulunulmuştur. İklim değişikliğinin deniz taşımacılığına olan etkileri yeni rotalar, gemiler ve limanlarda görülen gelişmeler açısından derlenmiştir. Bu çalışma, tüm gelişmeler paralelinde firmaların rekabet avantajı sağlamalarına rehberlik etmesi ve ileride yapılacak çalışmalara ışık tutması açısından öncü bir çalışmadır.

Keywords

İklim değişikliği, Denizyolu taşımacılığı, Rekabet gücü

THE IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON THE COMPETITIVENESS OF MARITIME COMPANIES

Abstract

In terms of achieving sustainable economic growth, climate change is an essential topic that needs to be addressed for the protection of natural life and the continuity of life in the world. Measures taken against climate change due to the rapidly increasing global warming in recent years are closely related to maritime sector, as in many other sectors. In order to reduce the negative effects of climate change, maritime transport companies need a proactive and planned adaptation process. This is also a requirement for companies to maintain their competitive advantage in the sector. This study aims to reveal the developments in maritime transport sector in the context of climate change, to make suggestions to maritime enterprises so as to maintain their competitive advantage and to guide future studies. Accordingly, the literature has been systematically reviewed, the developments in maritime transport have been revealed; and in the light of these findings, recommendations have been made to maritime enterprises. The effects of climate change on maritime transport have been compiled in terms of new routes, developments in ships and ports. This study is a pioneering study with regard to guiding companies to gain competitive advantage in parallel with all developments and shedding light on future works.

Keywords

Climate change, Maritime transport, Competitiveness

References

• Abramowski, T., Cepowski, T., & Zvolenský, P. (2018). Determination of regression formulas for key design characteristics of container ships at preliminary design stage. New Trends in Production Engineering, 1(1), 247-257.
• Acciaro, M., H. Ghiara, & C. M. Inés. (2014). Energy Management in Seaports: A New Role for Port Authorities. Energy Policy, 71, 4–12.
• Adedeji, O., Reuben, O., & Olatoye, O. (2014). Global climate change. Journal of Geoscience and Environment Protection, 2(02), 114.
• AKİB (2020). Avrupa Birliği Emisyon Ticaret Sistemi Akdeniz İhracatçı Birlikleri Raporu.
• Alzahrani, A. Petri, I., Rezgui, Y., & Ghoroghi, A. (2021). Decarbonisation of seaports: A review and directions for future research. Energy Strategy Reviews, 38, 100727.
• Andrews, J., Babb, D., Barber, D. G., & Ackley, S. F. (2017). Climate change and sea ice: Shipping accessibility on the marine transportation corridor through Hudson Bay and Hudson Strait (1980–2014). Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene, 5.
• Azarkamand, S., Balbaa, A., Wooldridge, C., & Darbra, R. M. (2020). Climate Change Challenges and Response Options for the Port Sector. Sustainability, 12(17), 6941.
• Ballini, F., & Bozzo, R. (2015). Air pollution from ships in ports: The socio-economic benefit of cold-ironing technology. Research in Transportation Business & Management, 17, 92-98.
• Bamber, J. L., Oppenheimer, M., Kopp, R. E., Aspinall, W. P., & Cooke, R. M. (2019). Ice sheet contributions to future sea-level rise from structured expert judgment. Proceedings of The National Academy of Sciences, 116(23), 11195-11200
• Bao, C.H., & Xie, X.Z. (2002). Competitive Strategy and Competitive Advantage. Beijing: Xinhua Press.
• Başoğlu, A. (2014). Küresel İklim Değişikliğinin Ekonomik Etkileri. Karadeniz Teknik Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 7, 175-196.
• Bayraktar, M., Fidan, C. Ö. B., & Cerit, A. G. (2019). Yakıt Tipinin ve Hibrit Sevk Sisteminin Yakıt Tüketimine Etkisi: İzmir Alsancak Limanında Bir Hizmet Gemisi İçin Uygulama. Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Denizcilik Fakültesi Dergisi, 11, 33-52.
• Baştuğ, S., Haralambides, H., Esmer, S., & Eminoğlu, E. (2022). Port competitiveness: Do container terminal operators and liner shipping companies see eye to eye?. Marine Policy, 135, 104866.
• Becker, A., Ng, A. K., McEvoy, D., & Mullett, J. (2018). Implications of climate change for shipping: Ports and supply chains. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change, 9(2), e508.
• Bengtsson, S., Fridell, E., & Andersson, K. (2011). A comparative life cycle assessment of marine fuels: Liquefied natural gas and three other fossil fuels. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers M: Journal of Engineering for the Maritime Environment, 225, 97–110.
• Bergqvist, R., & Monios, J. (2019). Green Ports in Theory and Practice. Green Ports; Inland and Seaside Sustainable Transportation Strategies, edited by R. Bergqvist and J. Monios, 1–17. Cambridge, MA: Elsevier.
• Black, B. C., & Weisel, G.J. (2010). Historical Guides to Controversial Issues in America: Global Warming,1st. Ed., California: Greenwood.
• Boile, M., Theofanis, S., Sdoukopoulos, E., & Plytas, N. (2016). Developing a port energy management plan: Issues, challenges, and prospects. Transportation Research Record, 2549(1), 19-28.
• Cao, Y., Liang, S., Sun, L., Liu, J., Cheng, X., Wang, D., ... & Feng, K. (2022). Trans-Arctic shipping routes expanding faster than the model projections. Global Environmental Change, 73, 102488.
• Cariou, P. (2011). Is slow steaming a sustainable means of reducing CO2 emissions from container shipping? Transportation Research Part D, 16, 260–264.
• Contu, D., Kaya, O., & Kaya, I. (2021). Attitudes towards climate change and energy sources in oil exporters. Energy Strategy Reviews, 38, 100732.
• Corbet, J.J., Wang, H., & Winebrake, J.J., (2009). The effectiveness and cost of speed reductions on emissions from international shipping. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 14(8), 593–598.
• Crist, P. (2009). Greenhouse gas emissions reduction potential from international shipping (Discussion Paper, No. 2009–11). OECD/ITF Joint Transport Research Centre.
• Çivi, E. (2001). Rekabet gücü: literatür araştırması. Yönetim ve Ekonomi: Celal Bayar Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 8(2), 21-38.
• Dale, S. J., Hebner, R. E., & Sulligoi, G. (2015). Electric ship technologies. Proceedings of the IEEE, 103(12), 2225-2228.
• Damyanliev, T., Georgiev, P., & Garbatov, Y. (2017). Conceptual ship design framework for designing new commercial ships. Analysis and Design of Marine Structures, (pp. 183-192). CRC Press.
• Denyer, D., & Tranfield, D. (2009). Producing a systematic review. The Sage Handbook of Organizational Research Methods.
• De Marucci, S. (2012). The expansion of the Panama Canal and its impact on global CO2 emissions from ships. Maritime Policy & Management, 39(6), 603–620.
• Dış İşleri Bakanlığı (2021). Paris İklim Anlaşması. Erişim Adresi: https://www.mfa.gov.tr/paris-anlasmasi.tr.mfa#:~:text=Paris%20Anla%C5%9Fmas%C4%B1%207%20Ekim%202021,s%C4%B1f%C4%B1r%20emisyon%20hedefi%20ilan%20edilmi%C5%9Ftir, 01.03.2022.
• Esmer, S., Nguyen, H. O., Bandara, Y. M., & Yeni, K. (2016). Non-price competition in the port sector: A case study of ports in Turkey. The Asian Journal of Shipping and Logistics, 32(1), 3-11.
• Esteban, M., Mikami, T., Shibayama, T., Takagi, H., Jonkman, S. N., & van Ledden, M. (2014). Climate change adaptation in Tokyo Bay: The case for a storm surge barrier. Coastal Engineering Proceedings, 1-35. ESPO (2014). European Sea Ports Organizations. Erişim Adresi: http://www.espo.be, 10.01.2022.
• Evrin, R. A., & Dincer, I. (2019). Thermodynamic analysis and assessment of an integrated hydrogen fuel cell system for ships. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 44(13), 6919-6928.
• Fetting, C. (2020). The European Green Deal. Vienna, Austria: ESDN Office.
• Gabbott, M. (2006). Undertaking a Literature Review in Marketing. The Marketing Review, 4(4), 411-429.
• Gallucci, M. (2021). The Ammonia Solution: Ammonia engines and fuel cells in cargo ships could slash their carbon emissions. IEEE Spectrum, 58(3), 44-50.
• Galvão, G. D. A., Homrich, A. S., Geissdoerfer, M., Evans, S., Scoleze Ferrer, P. S., & Carvalho, M. M. (2020). Towards a value stream perspective of circular business models. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 162, 105060.
• Gan, M., Li, D., Wang, J., Zhang, J., & Huang, Q. (2021). A comparative analysis of the competition strategy of seaports under carbon emission constraints. Journal of Cleaner Production, 310, 127488.
• Gilbert, P. (2014). From reductionism to systems thinking: How the shipping sector can address sulphur regulation and tackle climate change. Marine Policy, 43, 376-378.
• Grljušić, M., Medica, V., & Radica, G. (2015). Calculation of efficiencies of a ship power plant operating with waste heat recovery through combined heat and power production. Energies, 8(5), 4273-4299.
• Guo, H., & Lu, W. (2021). The inverse U-shaped relationship between corporate social responsibility and competitiveness: Evidence from Chinese international construction companies. Journal of Cleaner Production, 295, 126374.
• Güneş, Ü. (2013). Gemilerde atık ısı geri kazanım yöntemlerinin teknik ve ekonomik yönden incelenmesi (Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi). Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesi, İstanbul.
• Hentschel, M., Ketter, W., & Collins, J. (2018). Renewable energy cooperatives: Facilitating the energy transition at the Port of Rotterdam. Energy Policy, 121, 61-69.
• Hossain, T., Adams, M., & Walker, T. R. (2021). Role of sustainability in global seaports. Ocean & Coastal Management, 202, 105435.
• Humpert, M., & Raspotnik, A. (2012). The future of Arctic shipping. Port Technology International, 55(11), 10-11.
• Humpert, M., & Raspotnik, A. (2012). The Future of Arctic Shipping along the Transpolar Sea Route. Arctic Yearbook, 2012(1), 281-307.
• IMO (2018). Initial IMO Strategy on Reduction of GHG Emissions from Ships. MEPC 72/17/Add.1 Annex 11. Erişim Adresi: https://wwwcdn.imo.org/localresources/en/OurWork/Environment/Documents/ResolutionMEPC.304(72)_E.pdf, 10.02.2022.
• Innes, A., & J. Monios. (2018). Identifying the Unique Challenges of Installing Cold Ironing at Small and Medium Ports – The Case of Aberdeen. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 62, 298–313.
• İnsel, M. (2022). Limanlarda Yeşil Dönüşüm. Türklim Sunum Notları.
• IPCC (2019). IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, M. Tignor, E. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Nicolai, A. Okem, J. Petzold, B. Rama, N.M. Weyer (eds.)]. In press.
• İpekgil Doğan, Ö., Marangoz, M., & Topoyan, M. (2003). İşletmelerin iç ve dış pazarda rekabet gücünü etkileyen faktörler ve bir uygulama. Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi. 5(2): 114-139.
• Kalligeros, S., Karonis, D., Melanitis, N., Zannikos, F., & Lois, E. (2011). The perspective of use biofuel in the marine sector. In Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Environmental Science and Technology, 459-466.
• Kates, R. W., Travis, W. R., & Wilbanks, T. J. (2012). Transformational adaptation when incremental adaptations to climate change are insufficient. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109, 7156–7161.
• Kermani, M., Shirdare, E., Parise, G., Bongiorno, M., & Martirano, L. (2022). A Comprehensive Techno-economic Solution for Demand Control in Ports: Energy Storage Systems Integration. IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications.
• Kesieme, U., Pazouki, K., Murphy, A., & Chrysanthou, A. (2019). Biofuel as an alternative shipping fuel: technological, environmental and economic assessment. Sustainable Energy & Fuels, 3(4), 899-909.
• Kim, J., & Park, C. (2010). Wind power generation with a parawing on ships, a proposal. Energy, 35(3), 1425-1432.
• Kim, K., Roh, G., Kim, W., & Chun, K. (2020). A preliminary study on an alternative ship propulsion system fueled by ammonia: Environmental and economic assessments. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 8(3), 183.
• Kontovas, C. A. (2020). Integration of air quality and climate change policies in shipping: The case of sulphur emissions regulation. Marine Policy, 113, 103815.
• Korberg, A. D., Brynolf, S., Grahn, M., & Skov, I. R. (2021). Techno-economic assessment of advanced fuels and propulsion systems in future fossil-free ships. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 142, 110861.
• Kumar, S. (2022). 7 Technologies That Can Change The Future of Shipbuilding. Erişim Adresi: https://www.marineinsight.com/future-shipping/shipbuilding-technologies/, 16.01.2022.
• Lampe, J., Rüde, E., Papadopoulos, Y., & Kabir, S. (2018). Model-based assessment of energy-efficiency, dependability, and cost-effectiveness of waste heat recovery systems onboard ship. Ocean Engineering, 157, 234-250.
• Lenton, T., Footitt, A., & Dlugolecki, A., (2009). Major tipping points in the earth’s climate system and consequences for the insurance sector. Erişim Adresi: http://www.worldwildlife.org/c limate/Publications/WWFBinaryitem14354.pdf, 13.02.2022.
• Lindstad, H., Asbjørnslett, B.E., & Strømman, A.,H., (2011). Reductions in greenhouse gas emissions and cost by shipping at lower speed. Energy Policy 39, 3456–3464.
• Lindstad, H., Jullumstrø, E., & Sandaas, I. (2013). Reductions in cost and greenhouse gas emissions with new bulk ship designs enabled by the Panama Canal expansion. Energy Policy, 59, 341–349.
• Lindstad, H. E. (2014). Hydrogen the Next Maritime Fuel. Erişim Adresi: https://www.sintef.no/en/publications/publication/1295829/, 15.01.2022.
• Lindstad, E., & Bø, T. I. (2018). Potential power setups, fuels and hull designs capable of satisfying future EEDI requirements. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 63, 276–290.
• Lockley, P., & Jarabo-Martin, A. (2011). Ship efficiency: the guide – a comprehensive guide to ship eco-efficiency technologies and measures. London: Fathom.
• Makkonen, T., Inkinen, T., & Saarni, J. (2013) Innovation types in the Finnish maritime cluster. WMU Journal of Maritime Affairs, 12(1):1–15.
• Marine Deal News (2020). Geleceğin Yakıtı: Amonyak. Erişim Adresi: https://www.marinedealnews.com/gelecegin-yakiti-amonyak/, 10.02.2022.
• Merk, O. (2017). Climate change: Is shipping Finally on Board? OECD Observer October (312): 23-24.
• Monios, J., & Wilmsmeier, G. (2020). Deep adaptation to climate change in the maritime transport sector–a new paradigm for maritime economics?. Maritime Policy & Management, 47(7), 853-872.
• Moser, S. C., & Boykoff, M. T. (2013). Climate change and adaptation success. In S. C. Moser & M. T. Boykoff (Eds.), Successful adaptation to climate change: Linking Science and Policy in a Rapidly Changing World, (pp. 1–33). Abingdon, England: Routledge.
• Ng, K. Y. A., Becker, A., Cahoon, S., Chen, S. L., Earl, P., & Yang, Z. (Eds.). (2015). Climate change and adaptation planning for ports. London: Routledge.
• Notteboom, T. E., & Vernimmen, B. (2009). The effect of high fuel costs on liner service configuration in container shipping. Journal of Transport Geography, 17(5), 325-337.
• Nursey-Bray, M., & Miller, T. (2012). Ports and climate change: building skills in climate change adaptation, Australia. In Climate Change and The Sustainable Use of Water Resources, (pp. 273-282). Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer.
• Öztürk, T., Türkeş, M., & Kurnaz, M. L. (2011). RegCM4. 3.5 İklim Modeli Benzetimleri Kullanılarak Türkiye'nin Gelecek Hava Sıcaklığı ve Yağış Klımatolojılerindeki Değişikliklerin Çözümlenmesi. Ege Coğrafya Dergisi, 20(1), 17-27.
• Peneder, M., & Rammer, C. (2018). Measuring Competitiveness. ZEW - Leibniz Centre for European Economic Research.
• Peters, T. (1988). Restoring American Competitiveness: Looking For New Models of Organizations. Academy of Management Perspectives, 2(2), 103-109.
• Platzer, M. F., Sarigul-Klijn, N., Young, J., Ashraf, M. A., & Lai, J. C. S. (2014). Renewable hydrogen production using sailing ships. Journal of Energy Resources Technology, 136(2).
• Porter, M. E. (1990), The Competitive Advantages of Nations. Harvard Business Review. Mart-Nisan, 2.
• Porter, M. E. (1985), Competitive Advantage: Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance, New York: The Free Press.
• Psaraftis, H. N., & Kontovas, C. A. (2013). Speed models for energy-efficient maritime transportation: A taxonomy and survey. Transportation Research C, 26(2013), 331 –351.
• Sadek, I., & Elgohary, M. (2020). Assessment of renewable energy supply for green ports with a case study. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27(5), 5547-5558.
• Saeidi, S. P., Sofian, S., Saeidi, P., Saeidi, S. P., & Saaeidi, S. A. (2015). How does corporate social responsibility contribute to firm financial performance? The mediating role of competitive advantage, reputation, and customer satisfaction. Journal of Business Research, 68(2), 341-350.
• Scott, B. R., Lodge, G. C., & Bower, J. L. (1985). US Competitiveness in The World Economy. Harvard Business School Press.
• Shakeri, N., Zadeh, M., & Nielsen, J. B. (2020). Hydrogen Fuel Cells for Ship Electric Propulsion: Moving Toward Greener Ships. IEEE Electrification Magazine, 8(2), 27-43.
• Sharples, J. A., & Milham, N. (1990). Long-run Competitiveness of Australian agriculture. United States Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, Foreign Agricultural Economics, Report no: 243.
• Sikora, A. (2021). European Green Deal–legal and financial challenges of the climate change. In Era Forum, 21(4): 681-697. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer.
• Speirs, J., Balcombe, P., Blomerus, P., Stettler, M., Brandon, N., & Hawkes, A., (2019). Can Natural Gas Reduce Emissions from Transport? Heavy Goods Vehicles and Shipping. London, UK.
• Spengler, T., & G. Wilmsmeier. (2019). Sustainable Performance and Benchmarking in Container Terminals – the Energy Dimension. In Green Ports; Inland and Seaside Sustainable Transportation Strategies, edited by R. Bergqvist and J. Monios, 125–154. Cambridge, MA: Elsevier.
• Spengler, T., & Tovar, B. (2021). Potential of cold-ironing for the reduction of externalities from in-port shipping emissions: The state-owned Spanish port system case. Journal of Environmental Management, 279, 111807.
• Styhre, L., Winnes, H., Black, J., Lee, J., & Le-Griffin, H. (2017). Greenhouse gas emissions from ships in ports–Case studies in four continents. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 54, 212-224.
• Şağbanşua, L., & Bişkek, K. (2006). Strateji, rekabet ve rekabet gücü ilişkileri. Akademik Bakış, Uluslararası Hakemli Sosyal Bilimler E-Dergisi, 9, 1-14
• Theocharis, D., Pettit, S., Rodrigues, V. S., & Haider, J. (2018). Arctic shipping: A systematic literature review of comparative studies. Journal of Transport Geography, 69, 112-128.
• Tillig, F., & Ringsberg, J. W. (2020). Design, operation and analysis of wind-assisted cargo ships. Ocean Engineering, 211, 107603.
• Traut, M., Gilbert, P., Walsh, C., Bows, A., Filippone, A., Stansby, P., & Wood, R. (2014). Propulsive power contribution of a kite and a Flettner rotor on selected shipping routes. Applied Energy, 113, 362 –372.
• Tronstad, T., Åstrand, H. H., Haugom, G. P. & Langfeldt, L. (2017). Study on the use of Fuel Cells in Shipping, 1–108.
• Türkeş, M. (2012). Küresel İklim Değişikliği ve Çölleşme. [N. Özgen (der.)] Günümüz Dünya Sorunları – Disiplinlerarası Bir Yaklaşım. Eğiten Kitap, Ankara. 1-42.
• Türkeş, M. (2019). İklim Değişikliğinin Bilimsel Temelleri, Türkiye’ye Etkileri. İklim Değişikliği Alanında Ortak Çabaların Desteklenmesi Projesi (iklimİN), Proje Raporu.
• U.S. EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) (2008). Effects of climate change on aquatic invasive species and implications for management and research. EPA, Office of Research and Development, Washington, D.C.
• Ucal, M., An, Nazan & Kurnaz, L. (2017). İklim Değişikliği Sürecinde Ekonomideki Yeni Kavramlar ve Yaklaşımlar. Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 19(3), 373-402.
• UNCTAD (2020). Review of Maritime Transport. Erişim Adresi: https://unctad.org/webflyer/review-maritime-transport-2020, 15.02.2022.
• UNCTAD (2021). Review of Maritime Transport. Erişim Adresi: https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/rmt2021, 15.02.2022.
• Wan, Z., el Makhloufi, A., Chen, Y. ve Tang, J. (2018). Decarbonizing the international shipping industry: Solutions and policy recommendations. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 126(December), 428–435.
• Weiss, C. V., Guanche, R., Ondiviela, B., Castellanos, O. F., & Juanes, J. (2018). Marine renewable energy potential: A global perspective for offshore wind and wave exploitation. Energy Conversion and Management, 177, 43-54.
• Winnes, H., Styhre, L., & Fridell, E. (2015). Reducing GHG emissions from ships in port areas. Research in Transportation Business & Management, 17, 73-82.
• Wright, S. (2013). Climate change risk management for ports. In Ports 2013: Success Through Diversification, (pp. 272-281).
• Yang, Y. C., & Ge, Y. E. (2020). Adaptation strategies for port infrastructure and facilities under climate change at the Kaohsiung port. Transport Policy, 97, 232-244.
• Zhang, Q., Luo, Z., Zhao, Y., & Pavel, S. (2021). Thermodynamic analysis and multi-objective optimization of a transcritical CO2 waste heat recovery system for cruise ship application. Energy Conversion and Management, 227, 113612.
• Zis, T. P. (2019). Prospects of cold ironing as an emissions reduction option. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 119, 82-95.