Research Article
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Are General Intelligence and Implicit Memory Related?: The Effect of Age

Year 2019, Volume: 36 Issue: 2, 198 - 208, 30.12.2019
https://doi.org/10.32600/huefd.432278

Abstract

This study investigated the relationship between general intelligence and implicit memory performance in conjunction
with aging. Data have been collected from 95 volunteers (49 young-46 older adults). General intelligence was
measured by the Raven Standard Progressive Matrices (RSPM) test. Participants’ implicit memory performance was
measured by the Word Stem Completion (WSC) task, in which the participants were presented with first three letters
of a word and asked to complete this stem with the first word that comes to their mind. Explicit memory performance
was also measured to be able to make a comparison with implicit memory performance and to document the
differentiation between implicit and explicit memory. Although the same WSC task was used to measure implicit and
explicit memory performance separately, the different instructions were used to deduce the different memory types.
According to the results of factorial ANOVA, the main effect of age on general intelligence score was found to be
statistically significant. After running further analyses by Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients, results
indicated that RSPM test total correct score had a tendency to decrease with increasing age and RSPM test completion
time had a tendency to increase with aging. Results also showed that implicit WSC task score and RSPM test total
correct score were positively correlated. Similarly, explicit WSC task score and RSPM test total correct score were
positively correlated, too. However, RSPM test completion time did not differ depending on implicit and explicit
memory performances which were measured by WSC task. The present study indicated the relation between implicit
WSC task and general intelligence. Within this context, this study is important to draw attention to the contribution of
implicit memory measurement which is in the shadow of traditional explicit memory measurements to general
intelligence, especially in older population.

References

  • Ackerman, P. L., Beier, M. E., and Boyle, M. O. (2005). Working memory and intelligence: The same or different constructs? Psychological Bulletin, 131(4), 567 – 589.
  • Anooshian, L. J. (1999). Understanding age differences in memory: Disentangling conscious and unconscious processes. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 23 (1); 1–18.
  • Baltes, P. B. (1993). The aging mind: Potentials and limits. The Gerontologist, 33 (5); 580-594.
  • Baltes, P. B. and Baltes, M. M. (1983). Plasticity and variability in psychological aging: Methodological and theoretical issues. In: Gurski G (Ed) Determining the Effects of Aging on the Central Nervous System. Berlin: Schering, pp. 41-60.
  • Beck, A. T. (1961). An inventory for measuring depression. Archieves of General Psychology, 4; 561-571.
  • Chiarello, C. and Hoyer, W. J. (1988). Adults age differences in implicit and explicit memory: Time course and encoding effects. Psychology and Aging, 3; 358-366.
  • Christensen, H. and Birrell, P. (1991). Explicit memory and implicit memory in dementia and normal ageing. Psychological Research, 53; 149–161.
  • Colom, R., Abad, F., Rebollo, I., and Chun Shih, P. (2005). Memory span and general intelligence: A latent-variable approach. Intelligence, 33, 623 – 642.
  • Craik, F. I. M. (1987). Age differences in recall and recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 13; 474 -479.
  • Duncan, J., Schramm, M., Thompson, R. and Dumontheil, I. (2012). Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 19 (5), 864-870.
  • Engle, R. W., Tuholski, S. W., Laughlin, J. E., and Conway, A. R. A. (1999). Working memory, short-term memory, and general fluid intelligence: A latent-variable approach. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 128, 309–331.
  • Ertan, T. and Eker, E. (2000). Reliability, validity, and factor structure of the Geriatric Depression Scale in Turkish elderly: Are there different factor structures for different cultures. International Psychogeriatrics, 12 (2); 163–172.
  • Folstein, M., Folstein, S. and McHugh, P. (1975). Mini-mental state: A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients from clinician. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 12; 189–198.
  • Fukuda, K., Vogel, E., Mayr, U. and Awh, E. (2010). Quantity, not quality: The relationship between fluid intelligence and working memory capacity. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 17, 673–679.
  • Gımzal, A. and Yazgan, Ç. (2004). Hafif bilişsel bozulma. Türk Psikiyatri Dergisi, 15 (4); 309-316.
  • Gilhooly, K. (2005). The ‘use it or lose it’ hyphotesis: Activity patterns and cognitive functioning. I. Uluslararası Gerontoloji Sempozyumu Bildiri Kitabı. Antalya: Gero-Yay.
  • Graf, P. and Schacter, D. L. (1985). Implicit and explicit memory for new associations in normal and amnesic subjects. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 11; 501–18.
  • Güngen, C., Ertan T., Eker E., Yaşar R. and Engin F. (2002). Standardize mini mental testin Türk toplumunda hafif demans tanısında geçerlik ve güvenilirliği. Türk Psikiyatri Dergisi, 13(4); 273–281.
  • Hayslip, B. and Panek, P. E. (2002). Adult Development and Aging (3rd ed.). Melbourne, Fl: Krieger.
  • Hisli, N. (1988). Beck Depresyon Envanteri’nin geçerliği üzerine bir çalışma. Psikoloji Dergisi, 6 (22); 118 -122.
  • Horn, J. L. and Cattell, R. B. (1967). Age differences in fluid and crystallized intelligence. Acta Psychologia Scandinavica, 26; 107-129.
  • Hoyer, W. J. and Roodin, P. A. (2003). Adult development and aging. (5th ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill.
  • Hultsch, D. F. (1969). Adult age differences in the organization of free recall. Developmental Psychology, 1; 673-678.
  • Jelicic, M., Craik, F. I. M. and Moscovitch, M. (1996). Effects of aging on different explicit and implicit memory tasks. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 8(3); 225-234.
  • Jensen, A. R. (1987). Psychometric g as a focus of concerted research effort. Intelligence, 2; 193-198.
  • Karakaş, S., Eski, R., Öktem-Tanör, Ö., Bekçi, B., Irak, M. and Kafadar, H. (2004). Raven Standart Progresif Matrisler Testi. Bilnot Bataryası El Kitabı: Nöropsikolojik Testler için Araştırma ve Geliştirme Çalışmaları. Ankara: Dizayn Ofset.
  • Kaynak, H. and Cangöz, B. (2010). Anlık ve gecikmeli örtük bellek performansı yaşlanmadan etkilenir mi? Türk Geriatri Dergisi, 13 (1); 26–35.
  • Komatsu, S., Naito, M. and Fuke, T. (1996). Age related and intelligence related differences in implicit memory: Effects of generation on word fragment completion test. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 62 (2); 151-172.
  • La Rue, A. (1995). Normal aging: Psychological aspects. In I. Kaplan, B. Sadock (Eds.). Comprehensive Text Book of Psychiatry. (6th ed.) Vol.2, Maryland: Williams & Wilkins.
  • Lezak, M. D. (1995). Neuropsychological Assessment (3rd ed.) New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Light, L. L. (1991). Memory and aging: Four hypothesis in search of data. Annual Review Psychology, 42; 333-376.
  • Light, L. L., Prull, M. W., La Voie, D. J. and Healy, M. R. (2000). Dual-process theories of memory in old age. In T. J. Perfect & E. A. Maylor (Eds.). Models of cognitive aging: Debates in Psychology. London: Oxford University Press.
  • Light, L. L. and Singh, A. (1987). Implicit and explicit memory in young and older adults. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 13 (4); 531-541.
  • Maki, P. M., Zonderman, A. B. and Weingartner, H. (1999). Age differences in implicit memory: Fragmented object identification and category exemplar generation. Psychological Aging, 14 (2); 284–294.
  • Meyer, B. J. F. and Rice, G. E. (1983). Learning and memory from text across the adult life span. In J. Fine & R. O. Freedle (Eds.), Developmental Studies in Discourse (pp. 291-306). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
  • O’Hanlon, L.,Wilcox, K. A. and Kemper, S. (2001). Age differences in implicit and explicit associative memory: Exploring elaborative processing effects. Experimental Aging Research, 27; 341-359.
  • Papalia, D. E. , Sterns, H. L., Feldman, R. D. and Camp, C. J. (2002). Adult development and aging. (2nd ed). Boston: McGraw Hill.
  • Pfeffer, R.I., Kurosaki, T.T., Harrah, C.H., Chance, J.M. and Filos, S. (1982). Measurement of activities of older adults in community. Journal of Gerontology, 37(3); 323–329.
  • Raven, J. C. , Court, J. H. and Raven J. (1992). Manual for Raven’s Standart Progressive Matrices. Oxford: Oxford Psychologists Press.
  • Russo, R. and Parkin, A. J. (1993). Age differences in implicit memory: More apparent than real. Memory and Cognition, 21 (1); 73-80.
  • Salthouse, T. A. (1982). Adult cognition: An experimental psychology of human ageing. New York: Springer.
  • Schacter, D. L. (1987). Implicit memory: History and current status. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory, and Cognition, 13 (3); 501-518.Schacter, D. L. (1992). Understanding implicit memory. American Psychologist, 47 (4); 559–569.
  • Scheikh, J. I. and Yesavage, J. A. (1986). Geriatric depression scale (GDS): Recent evidence and development of a shorter version. Clinical Gerontology, 5; 165–173.
  • Schott, B. H., Henson, R. N., Richardson-Klavehn, A., Becker, C., Thoma, V., Hans-Jochen, H. and Düzel, E. (2005). Redefining implicit and explicit memory: The functional neuroanatomy of priming, remembering, and control of retrieval. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 102; 1257-1262.
  • Selekler, K., Cangöz, B. and Karakoç, E. (2004). İşlevsel Faaliyetler Anketi’nin 50 yaş ve üzeri grupta Türk kültürü için uyarlama ve norm belirleme çalışması. Türk Nöroloji Dergisi, 10 (2); 102–107.
  • Şahin, N. H. and Şahin, N. (1992). Reliability and validity of the Turkish version of the Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 49 (6); 751-763.
  • T.C. Başbakanlık Devlet İstatistik Enstitüsü (2003). 2000 Genel nüfus sayımı: Nüfusun sosyal ve ekonomik nitelikleri. Ankara: Devlet İstatistik Enstitüsü.
  • Tekcan, A. İ. and Göz, İ. (2005). Türkçe Kelime Normları: 600 Türkçe kelimenin imgelem, somutluk, sıklık değerleri ve çağrışım setleri. İstanbul: Boğaziçi Üniversitesi Matbaası.
  • Türk Dil Kurumu. (1983). Türkçe Sözlük. Cilt 1–2. Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Basım Evi.
  • Wachs, T. D. (1969). Free-recall learning in children as a function of chronological age, intelligence, and motivational orientation. Child Development, 40; 577-589.

Zekâ, Örtük Bellek Performansıyla İlişkili midir?: Yaşın Etkisi

Year 2019, Volume: 36 Issue: 2, 198 - 208, 30.12.2019
https://doi.org/10.32600/huefd.432278

Abstract

Bu araştırmada, genel zekâ ve örtük bellek performansı arasındaki ilişki yaşlanmayla birlikte incelenmektir.
Araştırmanın verileri 49 genç, 46 yaşlı olmak üzere toplam 95 gönüllü yetişkinden toplanmıştır. Genel zekâ puanı,
Raven Standart Progresif Matrisler (RSPM) testi kullanılarak ölçülmüştür. Katılımcıların bellek performansını ölçmek
için, Kelime Kökü Tamamlama (KKT) görevi kullanılmıştır. Örtük bellek görevinde, katılımcılardan kendilerine ilk üç harfi sunulan kelime köklerini akıllarına gelen ilk kelimeye tamamlamaları istenmiştir. Ayrıca, örtük bellek
performansıyla karşılaştırma yapabilmek ve örtük ve açık bellek arasındaki ayrımı belgelemek için açık bellek
performansı da ölçülmüştür. Örtük ve açık bellek performansını ayrı ayrı ölçmek için aynı KKT görevi kullanılmış,
ancak bu görev farklı yönergeler altında uygulanmıştır. Faktöriyel varyans analizi (ANOVA) bulgularına göre, yaşın
genel zekâ puanları üzerindeki temel etkisi istatistiksel olarak anlamlı bulunmuştur. Pearson momentler çarpımı
korelasyon hesaplamaları sonucunda, ilerleyen yaşla birlikte RSPM testinden alınan toplam doğru puanın azaldığı,
testi tamamlama süresinin ise arttığı görülmüştür. Örtük KKT görevi puanları ile RSPM testi toplam doğru puanları
arasındaki ilişki ve açık KKT görevi puanları ile RSPM testi toplam doğru puanları arasındaki ilişki de istatistiksel
olarak anlamlı bulunmuş, aralarındaki ilişkilerin pozitif olduğu kaydedilmiştir. Buna karşın, örtük KKT görevi puanı
ile RSPM testi tamamlama süresi ve açık KKT görevi puanı ile RSPM testi tamamlama süresi arasındaki ilişki
istatistiksel olarak anlamlı değildir. Mevcut çalışma bulguları, örtük KKT görevi ölçümünün genel zekâyla olan güçlü
ilişkisini göstermektedir. Çalışma, bu kapsamda, özellikle yaşlı nüfusta, geleneksel açık bellek ölçümlerinin gölgesinde
kalan örtük bellek ölçümünün genel zekâya olan katkısına dikkat çekmesi açısından önemlidir.

References

  • Ackerman, P. L., Beier, M. E., and Boyle, M. O. (2005). Working memory and intelligence: The same or different constructs? Psychological Bulletin, 131(4), 567 – 589.
  • Anooshian, L. J. (1999). Understanding age differences in memory: Disentangling conscious and unconscious processes. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 23 (1); 1–18.
  • Baltes, P. B. (1993). The aging mind: Potentials and limits. The Gerontologist, 33 (5); 580-594.
  • Baltes, P. B. and Baltes, M. M. (1983). Plasticity and variability in psychological aging: Methodological and theoretical issues. In: Gurski G (Ed) Determining the Effects of Aging on the Central Nervous System. Berlin: Schering, pp. 41-60.
  • Beck, A. T. (1961). An inventory for measuring depression. Archieves of General Psychology, 4; 561-571.
  • Chiarello, C. and Hoyer, W. J. (1988). Adults age differences in implicit and explicit memory: Time course and encoding effects. Psychology and Aging, 3; 358-366.
  • Christensen, H. and Birrell, P. (1991). Explicit memory and implicit memory in dementia and normal ageing. Psychological Research, 53; 149–161.
  • Colom, R., Abad, F., Rebollo, I., and Chun Shih, P. (2005). Memory span and general intelligence: A latent-variable approach. Intelligence, 33, 623 – 642.
  • Craik, F. I. M. (1987). Age differences in recall and recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 13; 474 -479.
  • Duncan, J., Schramm, M., Thompson, R. and Dumontheil, I. (2012). Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 19 (5), 864-870.
  • Engle, R. W., Tuholski, S. W., Laughlin, J. E., and Conway, A. R. A. (1999). Working memory, short-term memory, and general fluid intelligence: A latent-variable approach. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 128, 309–331.
  • Ertan, T. and Eker, E. (2000). Reliability, validity, and factor structure of the Geriatric Depression Scale in Turkish elderly: Are there different factor structures for different cultures. International Psychogeriatrics, 12 (2); 163–172.
  • Folstein, M., Folstein, S. and McHugh, P. (1975). Mini-mental state: A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients from clinician. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 12; 189–198.
  • Fukuda, K., Vogel, E., Mayr, U. and Awh, E. (2010). Quantity, not quality: The relationship between fluid intelligence and working memory capacity. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 17, 673–679.
  • Gımzal, A. and Yazgan, Ç. (2004). Hafif bilişsel bozulma. Türk Psikiyatri Dergisi, 15 (4); 309-316.
  • Gilhooly, K. (2005). The ‘use it or lose it’ hyphotesis: Activity patterns and cognitive functioning. I. Uluslararası Gerontoloji Sempozyumu Bildiri Kitabı. Antalya: Gero-Yay.
  • Graf, P. and Schacter, D. L. (1985). Implicit and explicit memory for new associations in normal and amnesic subjects. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 11; 501–18.
  • Güngen, C., Ertan T., Eker E., Yaşar R. and Engin F. (2002). Standardize mini mental testin Türk toplumunda hafif demans tanısında geçerlik ve güvenilirliği. Türk Psikiyatri Dergisi, 13(4); 273–281.
  • Hayslip, B. and Panek, P. E. (2002). Adult Development and Aging (3rd ed.). Melbourne, Fl: Krieger.
  • Hisli, N. (1988). Beck Depresyon Envanteri’nin geçerliği üzerine bir çalışma. Psikoloji Dergisi, 6 (22); 118 -122.
  • Horn, J. L. and Cattell, R. B. (1967). Age differences in fluid and crystallized intelligence. Acta Psychologia Scandinavica, 26; 107-129.
  • Hoyer, W. J. and Roodin, P. A. (2003). Adult development and aging. (5th ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill.
  • Hultsch, D. F. (1969). Adult age differences in the organization of free recall. Developmental Psychology, 1; 673-678.
  • Jelicic, M., Craik, F. I. M. and Moscovitch, M. (1996). Effects of aging on different explicit and implicit memory tasks. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 8(3); 225-234.
  • Jensen, A. R. (1987). Psychometric g as a focus of concerted research effort. Intelligence, 2; 193-198.
  • Karakaş, S., Eski, R., Öktem-Tanör, Ö., Bekçi, B., Irak, M. and Kafadar, H. (2004). Raven Standart Progresif Matrisler Testi. Bilnot Bataryası El Kitabı: Nöropsikolojik Testler için Araştırma ve Geliştirme Çalışmaları. Ankara: Dizayn Ofset.
  • Kaynak, H. and Cangöz, B. (2010). Anlık ve gecikmeli örtük bellek performansı yaşlanmadan etkilenir mi? Türk Geriatri Dergisi, 13 (1); 26–35.
  • Komatsu, S., Naito, M. and Fuke, T. (1996). Age related and intelligence related differences in implicit memory: Effects of generation on word fragment completion test. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 62 (2); 151-172.
  • La Rue, A. (1995). Normal aging: Psychological aspects. In I. Kaplan, B. Sadock (Eds.). Comprehensive Text Book of Psychiatry. (6th ed.) Vol.2, Maryland: Williams & Wilkins.
  • Lezak, M. D. (1995). Neuropsychological Assessment (3rd ed.) New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Light, L. L. (1991). Memory and aging: Four hypothesis in search of data. Annual Review Psychology, 42; 333-376.
  • Light, L. L., Prull, M. W., La Voie, D. J. and Healy, M. R. (2000). Dual-process theories of memory in old age. In T. J. Perfect & E. A. Maylor (Eds.). Models of cognitive aging: Debates in Psychology. London: Oxford University Press.
  • Light, L. L. and Singh, A. (1987). Implicit and explicit memory in young and older adults. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 13 (4); 531-541.
  • Maki, P. M., Zonderman, A. B. and Weingartner, H. (1999). Age differences in implicit memory: Fragmented object identification and category exemplar generation. Psychological Aging, 14 (2); 284–294.
  • Meyer, B. J. F. and Rice, G. E. (1983). Learning and memory from text across the adult life span. In J. Fine & R. O. Freedle (Eds.), Developmental Studies in Discourse (pp. 291-306). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
  • O’Hanlon, L.,Wilcox, K. A. and Kemper, S. (2001). Age differences in implicit and explicit associative memory: Exploring elaborative processing effects. Experimental Aging Research, 27; 341-359.
  • Papalia, D. E. , Sterns, H. L., Feldman, R. D. and Camp, C. J. (2002). Adult development and aging. (2nd ed). Boston: McGraw Hill.
  • Pfeffer, R.I., Kurosaki, T.T., Harrah, C.H., Chance, J.M. and Filos, S. (1982). Measurement of activities of older adults in community. Journal of Gerontology, 37(3); 323–329.
  • Raven, J. C. , Court, J. H. and Raven J. (1992). Manual for Raven’s Standart Progressive Matrices. Oxford: Oxford Psychologists Press.
  • Russo, R. and Parkin, A. J. (1993). Age differences in implicit memory: More apparent than real. Memory and Cognition, 21 (1); 73-80.
  • Salthouse, T. A. (1982). Adult cognition: An experimental psychology of human ageing. New York: Springer.
  • Schacter, D. L. (1987). Implicit memory: History and current status. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory, and Cognition, 13 (3); 501-518.Schacter, D. L. (1992). Understanding implicit memory. American Psychologist, 47 (4); 559–569.
  • Scheikh, J. I. and Yesavage, J. A. (1986). Geriatric depression scale (GDS): Recent evidence and development of a shorter version. Clinical Gerontology, 5; 165–173.
  • Schott, B. H., Henson, R. N., Richardson-Klavehn, A., Becker, C., Thoma, V., Hans-Jochen, H. and Düzel, E. (2005). Redefining implicit and explicit memory: The functional neuroanatomy of priming, remembering, and control of retrieval. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 102; 1257-1262.
  • Selekler, K., Cangöz, B. and Karakoç, E. (2004). İşlevsel Faaliyetler Anketi’nin 50 yaş ve üzeri grupta Türk kültürü için uyarlama ve norm belirleme çalışması. Türk Nöroloji Dergisi, 10 (2); 102–107.
  • Şahin, N. H. and Şahin, N. (1992). Reliability and validity of the Turkish version of the Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 49 (6); 751-763.
  • T.C. Başbakanlık Devlet İstatistik Enstitüsü (2003). 2000 Genel nüfus sayımı: Nüfusun sosyal ve ekonomik nitelikleri. Ankara: Devlet İstatistik Enstitüsü.
  • Tekcan, A. İ. and Göz, İ. (2005). Türkçe Kelime Normları: 600 Türkçe kelimenin imgelem, somutluk, sıklık değerleri ve çağrışım setleri. İstanbul: Boğaziçi Üniversitesi Matbaası.
  • Türk Dil Kurumu. (1983). Türkçe Sözlük. Cilt 1–2. Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Basım Evi.
  • Wachs, T. D. (1969). Free-recall learning in children as a function of chronological age, intelligence, and motivational orientation. Child Development, 40; 577-589.
There are 50 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language English
Journal Section Articles
Authors

Hande Kaynak

Publication Date December 30, 2019
Submission Date June 8, 2018
Acceptance Date February 22, 2019
Published in Issue Year 2019 Volume: 36 Issue: 2

Cite

APA Kaynak, H. (2019). Are General Intelligence and Implicit Memory Related?: The Effect of Age. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, 36(2), 198-208. https://doi.org/10.32600/huefd.432278


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