From unmanned conservation to biocultural protection: paradigm shifts in nature conservation in the world during the last 150 years

Yıl 2024, Sayı: 53, 298 - 317, 25.09.2024

Yilmaz Arı

https://doi.org/10.32003/igge.1492106

Öz

Natural areas on Earth are rapidly disappearing due to environmental harm caused by humans. However, a great deal of effort has been made to protect the environment over the last 150 years. Why, how, by whom, and with what priorities nature conservation should be done has always been discussed. This study investigates the fundamental paradigms, their eras, central concepts, shortcomings, and critics that have impacted conservation efforts from their inception. The study's foundation was provided by publications from international nature conservation organizations, application manuals, guidelines, and pertinent literature. While protecting wildlife and biodiversity was the primary objective of nature conservation at the beginning, other concepts like ecosystem integrity, social justice, human rights, sustainable development, ecosystem services and global warming, and preservation of cultural heritage have gained importance since the 1970s. Old beliefs and practices were either abandoned or drastically changed when new ideas were introduced. As a result, the idea of nature conservation has evolved from stressing biodiversity and completely ignoring human life in and around protected areas to placing a strong focus on preserving nature in all its forms, both natural and cultural, leading to a biocultural paradigm.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Paradigm shifts in nature conservation, Conservation as social science, Nature conservation, Environmental protection, Human-environment geography.

İnsansız korumadan biyokültürel korumaya: son 150 yılda dünyada doğa koruma paradigmalarının değişimi

Öz

İnsanın doğa üzerindeki tahripleri nedeniyle yeryüzünün doğal alanları hızla azalmaktadır. Buna karşılık doğayı koruma konusunda son 150 yıldır önemli çalışmalar yapılmıştır. Bu çalışmalar sırasında doğa korumanın neden, nasıl, kimler tarafından ve hangi önceliklerle yapılması gerektiği hep tartışılmıştır. Bu çalışma başlangıçtan beri doğa koruma çabalarına yön veren temel paradigmaları, bunların dönemleri, temel tezleri, eksiklikleri ile bunlara getirilen eleştirileri ele almaktadır. Çalışma uluslararası doğa koruma kuruluşlarının hazırladığı raporlar, uygulama el kitapları ve rehberler ile ilgili literatüre dayanmaktadır. Doğa koruma çabaları başlangıçta sadece yabani olanı ve biyoçeşitliliği korumaya odaklanmışken, 1970’lerden itibaren ekosistem bütünlüğü, sosyal adalet, insan hakları, sürdürülebilir kalkınma, ekosistem hizmetleri ve küresel ısınma ile kültürel mirasın korunması gibi kavramlar önem kazanmıştır. Yeni kavramların devreye girmesi ile eski perspektifler ya tamamen terk edilmiş ya da bu yeni kavramlarla değişikliğe uğramıştır. Sonuçta doğa koruma anlayışı doğa koruma alanları ve yakınlarında yaşayan insanları tamamen dışlayan ve sadece biyoçeşitliliği önceleyen bir anlayıştan doğanın tüm doğal ve kültürel unsurları ile korunmasını öngören biyokültürel koruma paradigmasına doğru evrilmiştir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Doğa korumada paradigma değişimi, Sosyal bilim olarak doğa koruma, Doğa koruma, Çevre koruma, insan-çevre coğrafyası

Kaynakça

• Adams, W.M. (2003). Nature and the colonial mind. In: Decolonizing Nature: Strategies for Conservation in a Post-Colonial Era. W.M. Adams and M. Mulligan (Eds.) içinde (pp. 16-50). Earthscan; London.
• Anderson, D. & Grove R. (1987). Conservation in Africa: People, policies and practice. ?: Cambridge University Press.
• Arı, Y. (2021). Manyas Kuş Cenneti Milli Parkı: Kültürel, tarihi ve politik ekoloji. ?: Çizgi Kitabevi.
• Arı, Y. (2020). Protecting biocultural diversity at Kazdaği National Park, Balikesir, Turkey: The role of Sacred Natural Sites. Human Geographies, 14(2), 215-238. https://doi.org/10.5719/hgeo.2020.142.3
• Arı, Y. (2019). Gönen Çayı Deltası Sulak Alanı’nda (Balıkesir) doğa koruma: Su, kültür ve yaşam. lnternational Journal of Geography and Geography Education, 40, 151-171. https://doi.org/10.32003/iggei.570380
• Arı, Y., & Arslan, F. (2007). Sanayicilerin doğa koruma algısı: Bandırmalı sanayiciler ve Kuş Cenneti Milli Parkı örneği. Balıkesir Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 10(17), 12-35.
• Arı, Y. (2003). Kuş Cenneti Milli Parkı’nda park yönetimi-yöre halkı ilişkisi. Doğu Coğrafya Dergisi, 8(9), 7-37. https://doi.org/10.32003/iggei.570380
• Barbier, E. B., & Burgess, J. C. (2017). The Sustainable Development Goals and the systems approach to sustainability. Economics, 11(1), 20170028. https://doi.org/10.5018/economics-ejournal.ja.2017-28.
• Batisse, M. (1997). Biosphere reserves: a challenge for biodiversity conservation & regional development. Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development, 39(5), 6-33. https://doi.org/10.1080/00139159709603644
• Belem Declaration, (1988) https://www.ethnobiology.net/what-we-do/core-programs/global-coalition- 2/declaration-of-belem/. 04.02.2024.
• Bennett, N. J., Roth, R., Klain, S. C., Chan, K. M., Clark, D. A., Cullman, G., ... & Veríssimo, D. (2017). Mainstreaming the social sciences in conservation. Conservation Biology, 31(1), 56-66. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12788
• Berkes, F. (2004). Rethinking community‐based conservation. Conservation Biology, 18(3), 621-630. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2004.00077.x
• Berkes, F. (2009). Evolution of co-management: Role of knowledge generation, bridging organizations and social learning. Journal of Environmental Management, 90(5), 1692-1702. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2008.12.001
• Berkes, F. (2012). Sacred ecology. Routledge.
• Berkes, F., & Ross, H. (2013). Community resilience: toward an integrated approach. Society & Natural Resources, 26(1), 5-20. https://doi.org/10.1080/08941920.2012.736605.
• Birben, Ü. (2020). The effectiveness of protected areas in biodiversity conservation: The case of Turkey. Cerne, 25, 424-438. https://doi.org/10.1590/01047760201925042644
• Blaikie, P. & Brookfield, H. (1987). Land degradation and society. Methuen: London and New York.
• Böhringer, C. (2003). The Kyoto Protocol: A review and perspectives. Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 19(3), 451-466. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxrep/19.3.451
• Boime, E. (2008). Environmental history, the environmental movement, and the politics of power. History Compass, 6(1), 297-313. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2007.00477.x
• Boone, C. G., Buckley, G. L., Grove, J. M., & Sister, C. (2009). Parks and people: An environmental justice inquiry in Baltimore, Maryland. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 99(4), 767-787. https://doi.org/10.1080/00045600903102949
• Brandon, K. E., and Wells, M. (1992). Planning for people and parks: design dilemmas. World Development, 20(4), 557-570. https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-750X(92)90044-V.
• Brandon, K., Redford, K. H., & Sanderson, S. (Eds.). (1998). Parks in peril: people, politics, and protected areas. Island Press.
• Bridgewater, P., & Rotherham, I. D. (2019). A critical perspective on the concept of biocultural diversity and its emerging role in nature and heritage conservation. People and Nature, 1(3), 291-304. https://doi.org/10.1002/pan3.10040.
• Brundtland, G. H. (1987). Our common future—Call for action. Environmental Conservation, 14(4), 291-294.
• Carson, R. (2011). Sessiz bahar (Çev.Ç. Güler). Palme Yayıncılık.
• Chase, A. (1987). Playing God in Yellowstone: The destruction of America's first national park. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
• Costanza, R., d'Arge, R., De Groot, R., Farber, S., Grasso, M., Hannon, B., ... Raskin, R.G., (1997). The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature, 387 (6630), 253–260. https://doi.org/10.1038/387253a0
• Costanza, R., De Groot, R., Braat, L., Kubiszewski, I., Fioramonti, L., Sutton, P., ... & Grasso, M. (2017). Twenty years of ecosystem services: How far have we come and how far do we still need to go? Ecosystem Services, 28, 1- 16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2017.09.008.
• Çırak, A. & Yörür, N. (2017). Türkiye‟de korunan alanlara yönelik politikalar ve kurumsal yapılanma konusundaki değişiklikler üzerine kronolojik bir değerlendirme. M. Aydın. (Ed). Current Debates in public finance public administration & environmental studies içinde (ss.497-521). London: IJOPEC Publication.
• Dickinson, J. L., Shirk, J., Bonter, D., Bonney, R., Crain, R. L., Martin, J., & Purcell, K. (2012). The current state of citizen science as a tool for ecological research and public engagement. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 10(6), 291-297. https://doi.org/10.1890/110236
• Dowie, M. (2005). Conservation refugees: when protecting nature means kicking people out. Orion, 1:6–27
• Dudley, N. (Ed.). (2008). Guidelines for applying protected area management categories. IUCN.
• Dudley, N., Groves, C., Redford, K. H., & Stolton, S. (2014). Where now for protected areas? Setting the stage for the 2014 World Parks Congress. Oryx, 48(4), 496-503. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605314000519
• Dudley, N., Parrish, J. D., Redford, K. H., & Stolton, S. (2010). The revised IUCN protected area management categories: the debate and ways forward. Oryx, 44(4), 485-490. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605310000566
• Dudley, N., Higgins‐Zogib, L., & Mansourian, S. (2009). The links between protected areas, faiths, and sacred natural sites. Conservation Biology, 23(3), 568-577. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2009.01201.x.
• Fox, S. R. (1985). The American conservation movement: John Muir and his legacy. Univ of Wisconsin Press.
• Galbraith, J. K. (1998). The affluent society. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
• Gavin, M. C., McCarter, J., Mead, A., Berkes, F., Stepp, J. R., Peterson, D., & Tang, R. (2015). Defining biocultural approaches to conservation. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 30(3), 140-145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2014.12.005
• Hannah, L. (2008). Protected areas and climate change. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1134(1), 201-212. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1439.009
• Hanski, I. (2011). Habitat loss, the dynamics of biodiversity, and a perspective on conservation. Ambio, 40(3), 248-255.
• Hockings, M., (2003). Systems for assessing the effectiveness of management in protected areas. BioScience, 53, 823–832. https://doi.org/10.1641/0006-3568(2003)053[0823:SFATEO]2.0.CO;2
• Houghton, J. (2005). Global warming. Reports on Progress in Physics, 68(6), 1343. https://doi.org/10.1088/0034-4885/68/6/R02
• Hurley, P. T., & Arı, Y. (2018). Saying “No” to (the) Oxygen Capital? Amenity migration, counter-territorialization, and uneven rural landscape change in the Kaz Dağları (Ida Mountains) of Western Turkey. Journal of Rural Studies, 62, 195-208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2018.08.008.
• Hübschle, A. M. (2017). The social economy of rhino poaching: of economic freedom fighters, professional hunters and marginalized local people. Current Sociology, 65(3), 427-447. https://doi.org/10.1177/001139211667
• Hummel, C., Poursanidis, D., Orenstein, D., Elliott, M., Adamescu, M. C., Cazacu, C., ... & Hummel, H. (2019). Protected area management: Fusion and confusion with the ecosystem services approach. Science of the Total Environment, 651, 2432-2443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.10.033
• Ishwaran, N., Persic, A. and Tri, N.H. (2008) ‘Concept and practice: the case of UNESCO biosphere reserves’, International Journal of Environment and Sustainable Development, 7(2), 118–131. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJESD.2008.018358
• IUCN. (1994). Guidelines for protected area management categories. Cambridge: U.K., and Gland, Switzerland:
• Jeanrenaud, S. (2002). People-oriented approaches in global conservation: Is the leopard changing its spots? International Institute for Environment and Development, and Institute for Development Studies, London.
• Jordan-Bychkov, T. G., Domosh,M. (2005). The human mosaic. ??????: Macmillan.
• Kemf, E. (Ed.). (1993). Indigenous People and Protected Areas. San Francisco: Earthscan Publications.
• Kidd, C. V. (1992). The evolution of sustainability. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 5, 1-26.
• Kosoy, N., Corbera, E., (2010). Payments for ecosystem services as commodity fetishism. Ecol. Econ. Vol. 69(6), 1228–1236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2009.11.002
• Kuhn, T. (1996). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
• Kurdoğlu, O. (2007). Dünyada doğayı koruma hareketinin tarihsel gelişimi ve güncel boyutu. Artvin Çoruh Üniversitesi Orman Fakültesi Dergisi, 8 (1), 59-76.
• Küçükosmanoğlu, A., Uyar, Ç., & Küçükosmanoğlu, G. G. (2019). An investigation of the studies on the conservation of biodiversity in Turkey. Bilge International Journal of Science and Technology Research, 3(2), 246-255. https://doi.org/10.30516/bilgesci.596084.
• Leopold, A. (1989). A sand county almanac. ???????: Oxford University Press.
• Leopold, A. S. (1963). Wildlife management in the national parks. US National Park Service.
• Locke, H., & Dearden, P. (2005). Rethinking protected area categories and the new paradigm. Environmental Conservation, 32(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0376892905001852
• Lukawiecki, J., Wall, J., Young, R., Gonet, J., Azhdari, G., & Moola, F. (2022). Operationalizing the biocultural perspective in conservation practice: a systematic review of the literature. Environmental Science & Policy, 136, 369-376. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2022.06.016
• Maffi, L., & Dilts, O. (2014). Biocultural diversity toolkit: An introduction to biocultural diversity. Canada. Terralingua.
• Maffi, L. (2012), "What is biocultural diversity" in Biocultural diversity conservation: a global sourcebook, L. Maffi and E. Woodley (eds), (pp.1-11), Routledge.
• Maizland, L. (2023). https://www.cfr.org/article/goal-conserve-30-percent-planet-2030-biodiversity- climate. 31.01.2024.
• Marsh, G. P. (2003). Man and nature. University of Washington Press.
• McNeely, J. A. (1993). People and protected areas: partners in prosperity. The law of the mother: Protecting indigenous peoples in protected areas içinde (pp. 249-257). San Fransisco: Sierra Club Books.
• McNeely, J. A., (Ed). (1993). Parks for Life: Report of the Fourth World Congress on National Parks and Protected Areas Cambridge, U.K., and Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.
• Meadows, D. H., Meadows, D. H., Randers, J., & Behrens III, W. W. (1972). The limits to growth: a report to the club of Rome.
• Nash, R. F. (1989). The rights of nature: A history of environmental ethics. University of Wisconsin Press.
• Nash, R. F. (2014). Wilderness and the American mind. ???????: Yale University Press.
• Nemoga, G. R., Appasamy, A., & Romanow, C. A. (2022). Protecting indigenous and local knowledge through a biocultural diversity framework. The Journal of Environment & Development, 31(3), 223-252. https://doi.org/10.1177/10704965221104781.
• Nepal SK & Weber KE (1993) Struggle for existence: park-people conflict in the Royal Chitwan National Park,
• Nepal. https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/26198.
• Neumann, R. P. (2002). Imposing wilderness: struggles over livelihood and nature preservation in Africa, (Vol. 4). Univ of California Press.
• Neumann, R.P. (2004). Moral and discursive geographies in the war for biodiversity in Africa. Political Geography, 23: 813–837. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2004.05.011.
• Nietschmann, B. (1997). Protecting coral reefs and sea territories, Miskito Coast, RAAN, Nicaragua. Conservation through cultural survival: Indigenous peoples and protected areas, Stevens S (Ed.) içinde (pp. 193-224). Island Press.
• Oldekop, J. A., Holmes, G., Harris, W. E., & Evans, K. L. (2016). A global assessment of the social and conservation outcomes of protected areas. Conservation Biology, 30(1), 133-141. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12568
• Peters, R.L. & T.E. Lovejoy. (1992). Global warming and biological diversity. Yale University Press. London.
• Phillips, A. (2003). Turning ideas on their head: the new paradigm for protected areas. In The George Wright Forum, 20 (2), 8-32. George Wright Society.
• Phillips, A. (2004). The history of the international system of protected area management categories. Parks, 14(3), 4-14.
• Pimbert, M. P., & Pretty, J. N. (1997). Parks, people and professionals: putting ‘participation’into protected area management. Social change and conservation, 16, 297-330.
• Prato, T., & Fagre, D. (2005). National parks and protected areas: Approaches for balancing social, economic, and ecological values. Ames: Blackwell Publishing.
• Pressey, R. L., Cabeza, M., Watts, M. E., Cowling, R. M., & Wilson, K. A. (2007). Conservation planning in a changing world. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 22(11), 583-592. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2007.10.001
• Redford, K. H., & Richter, B. D. (1999). Conservation of biodiversity in a world of use. Conservation biology, 13(6), 1246-1256.. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1999.97463.x
• Redpath, S. M., Young, J., Evely, A., Adams, W. M., Sutherland, W. J., Whitehouse, A., & Gutierrez, R. J. (2013). Understanding and managing conservation conflicts. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 28(2), 100-109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2012.08.021
• Rome, A. (2003). “Give earth a chance”: The environmental movement and the sixties. The Journal of American History, 90(2), 525-554. https://doi.org/10.2307/3659443
• Schmidt-Soltau, K. (2009). Is the displacement of people from parks only ‘purported’, or is it real? Conservation and Society, 7(1), 46-55. https://doi.org/10.4103/0972-4923.54796.
• Schumacher, E. F. (1973). Small is beautiful: A study of economics as if people really mattered. Blond & Briggs.
• Singh, B., Canham, G., & Charlton, C. (2016). People and parks. Australasian Parks and Leisure, 19(3), 58. https://doi.org/10.3316/ielapa.852941336075299.
• Smidt, M. B. (2020). In celebration of Earth Day 2020: How far have we come? Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development, 62(3), 6-8. https://doi.org/10.1080/00139157.2020.1750914
• Soule, M.E. & Terborgh, J. (1999) Continental Conservation. Washington DC, USA: Island Press.
• Turnbull, C. M. (1972). The Mountain People. New York: Simon and Schuster.
• UNESCO. (1972). World Heritage Convention. Convention concerning the protection of the world cultural and natural heritage adopted by the General Conference at its seventeenth session Paris, 16th November 1972, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation, Paris.
• UNESCO. (2024). Somut Olmayan Kültürel Mirasın Korunması Sözleşmesi”. 2 Nisan 2021c. https://ich.unesco.org/doc/src/00009-TR-PDF.pdf. 22 Nisan tarihinde erişildi.
• UNESCO‐SCBD. (2014). Linking biological and cultural diversity. Retrieved from https://www.cbd.int/lbcd/
• Wall, J., Lukawiecki, J., Young, R., Powell, L., McAlvay, A., & Moola, F. (2023). Operationalizing the biocultural perspective part II: A review of biocultural action principles since The Declaration of Belém. Environmental Science & Policy, 150, 103573. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2023.103573.
• Watson, J. E., & Venter, O. (2017). A global plan for nature conservation. Nature, 550(7674), 48-49. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature24144.
• West, P. C., & Brechin, S. R. (1991). Resident peoples and national parks: Social dilemmas and strategies in international conservation. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
• Willerslev, R., & Meinert, L. (2017). Understanding hunger with Ik Elders and Turnbull's The Mountain People. Ethnos, 82(5), 820-845. https://doi.org/10.1080/00141844.2016.1138984
• Wilson, E. O. (2016). Half-Earth: Our planet’s fight for life. Norton.
• Wittemyer, G., Elsen, P., Bean, W. T., Burton, A. C. O., & Brashares, J. S. (2008). Accelerated human population growth at protected area edges. Science, 321(5885), 123-126. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1158900.
• Yeşil, M. (2016). Doğa Koruma Yaklaşımlarındaki Değişimlerin Dünyada ve Türkiye ‘deki Tarihsel Süreci. Turkish Journal of Agriculture-Food Science and Technology, 4(10), 867-876. https://doi.org/10.24925/turjaf.v4i10.867-876.658.
• Yıldız, B., & Aydın, C. C. (2023). Türkiye’de Korunan Alanların IUCN Politikaları Kapsamında Değerlendirilmesi. Türkiye Arazi Yönetimi Dergisi, 5(1), 20-30. https://doi.org/10.51765/tayod.1233766
• Yıldız, D. & Atmiş, E. (2019). Türkiye’nin korunan alanlarında çatışma analizi. Bartın Orman Fakültesi Dergisi, 21(1), 227-242. https://doi.org/10.24011/barofd.507088
• Zimmerer, K. S. (2006). Cultural ecology: at the interface with political ecology-the new geographies of environmental conservation and globalization. Progress in Human Geography, 30(1), 63-78. https://doi.org/10.1191/0309132506ph591pr
• Zouros, N. (2004). The European Geoparks Network-Geological heritage protection and local development. Episodes Journal of International Geoscience, 27(3), 165-171. https://doi.org/10.18814/epiiugs/2004/v27i3/002