Pandemic SARS Coronavirus-2 Infections in Humans-COVID-19

Abstract

The Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) first broke out in Wuhan (China) and subsequently spread worldwide. Coronaviruses (CoVs) primarily cause zoonotic infections in birds and mammals however, in the last few decades have shown to be capable of infecting humans as well. The outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in 2003 and more recently, Middle-East respiratory syndrome, (MERS) has demonstrated the lethality of CoVs when they cross the species barrier and infect humans. Coronavirus (CoV) is a large family of viruses that cause afflictions ranging from the common cold to more severe pathologies such as Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS-CoV) and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS-CoV). A novel coronavirus (nCoV) is a new strain that has now been identified in humans. The recognition of a new coronavirus identified in December 2019, named CoVID-19 are common for coronavirus researchers. Detailed investigations found that SARS Coronavirus-2 was initially transmitted from civets to humans and MERS-CoV from dromedary camels to humans. Advances in biology have resulted in a greater understanding of coronavirus, including them to adapt to new environments, trans-species infection and the emergence of new subtypes. New tools of cell and molecular biology have led to an increased understanding of intracellular replication and viral cell biology. Along with the advent of reverse genetic approaches in the past five years; it is now possible to begin to define the determinants of viral replication, trans-species adaptation, and human disease. The most progress has been made on SARS-CoV 2, highlighting specific structural requirements for its functions in the CoV life cycle as well as mechanisms behind its pathogenesis. In this review, we will provide a through insight to the life cycle of CoV, its genetics, replication process and reverse genetic applications to SCoV along with advances in its research. This review aims to establish the current knowledge on CoV-2 by highlighting the recent progress that has been made and comparing it to previous knowledge. We also conclude with a brief discussion on practices to decrease risk factors for transmission and treatment options. 

Keywords

• Human coronavirus,SARS coronavirus-2,infections in humans-COVID-19

İnsan-COVID-19'da Pandemik SARS Coronavirus-2 Enfeksiyonları

Abstract

İlk olarak Wuhan'da (Çin) patlak veren Şiddetli Akut Solunum Sendromu Koronavirüs 2 (SARS-CoV-2), sonrasında dünyaya yayılmıştır. Koronavirüsler (CoVs) başlarda kuşlarda ve memelilerde zoonotik enfeksiyonlara neden olurken, son birkaç yılda insanları da enfekte edebildiği gösterilmiştir. 2003 yılında Şiddetli Akut Solunum Sendromu'nun (SARS) ve son zamanlarda Orta Doğu Solunum Sendromunun (MERS) patlak vermesi, CoV'lerin tür bariyerini geçip insanları enfekte ettiklerinde ölümcül olduklarını göstermiştir. Koronavirüs (CoV), soğuk algınlığından Orta Doğu Solunum Sendromu (MERS-CoV) ve Şiddetli Akut Solunum Sendromu (SARS-CoV) gibi daha şiddetli patolojilere kadar çeşitli rahatsızlıklara neden olan büyük bir virüs ailesidir. Yeni koronavirüs (nCoV), insanlarda daha önce tanımlanmamış yeni bir suş türüdür. Aralık 2019’da tanımlanan yeni koronavirüs, araştırmacılar tarafından genel olarak CoVID-19 olarak adlandırılmıştır. Yapılan ayrıntılı araştırmalarda, SARS Coronavirus-2'nin başlangıçta misk kedilerinden, MERS-CoV'un ise tek hörgüçlü develerden insanlara bulaştığı bulunmuştur. Biyoloji alanındaki gelişmeler koranavirüsün, yeni ortamlara adaptasyonu, trans-tür enfeksiyonu ve yeni alt tiplerinin ortaya çıkması da dahil olmak üzere daha iyi anlaşılmasını sağlamıştır. Hücre ve moleküler biyolojide kullanılan yeni araçlar, hücre içi replikasyon ve viral hücre biyolojisinin daha iyi anlaşılmasını sağlamıştır. Son beş yılda ters genetik yaklaşımların ortaya çıkmasıyla birlikte; artık viral replikasyonun, trans-tür adaptasyonunun ve insan hastalığının belirleyicilerini tanımlamaya başlamak mümkündür. Bu derlemede, CoV'nin yaşam döngüsü, genetiği, replikasyon süreci ve SCoV'ye ters genetik uygulamalarının araştırılması ile ilgili ilerlemelerle ilgili bilgi verilecektir. Bu derleme, yakın zamanda kaydedilen ilerlemeyi vurgulayarak ve önceki bilgilerle karşılaştırarak CoV-2 hakkındaki mevcut bilgileri oluşturmayı amaçlamaktadır. Ayrıca, bulaşma ve tedavi seçenekleri için risk faktörlerini azaltmaya yönelik uygulamalar hakkında kısa bir tartışma ele alınmıştır.

Keywords

• İnsan koronavirüsü,SARS koronavirüs-2,insan-COVID-19 enfeksiyonları

References

1. Song Z, Xu Y, Bao L, et al. From SARS to MERS, Thrusting Coronaviruses into the spotlight. Viruses. 2019;11(1):59. doi:10.3390/v11010059
2. Lee N, Hui D, Wu A, et al. A major outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome in Hong Kong. N Engl J Med. 2003;3(1):54. doi:10.5222/terh.2003.09293
3. Zelikow, P. The global infectious disease threat and its implications for the United States by the U.S. national intelligence. Council Foreign Affairs. 2000; 79(4):154. doi:10.2307/20049847
4. Taylor LH, Latham SM, Woolhouse ME. Risk factors for human disease emergence. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences. 2001;356(1411):983-989. doi:10.1098/rstb.2001.0888
5. Treanor J. Influenza vaccine — outmaneuvering antigenic shift and drift. New England Journal of Medicine. 2004;350(3):218-220. doi:10.1056/nejmp038238
6. Dowell SF, Simmerman JM, Erdman DD, et al. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus on hospital surfaces. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2004;39(5):652-657. doi:10.1086/422652
7. Bean B, Moore BM, Sterner B, Peterson LR, Gerding DN, Balfour HH. Survival of influenza viruses on environmental surfaces. Journal of Infectious Diseases. 1982;146(1):47-51. doi:10.1093/infdis/146.1.47
8. Alshammari M, Reynolds K, Verhougstraete M, O’Rourke M. Comparison of perceived and observed hand hygiene compliance in healthcare workers in MERS-COV endemic regions. Healthcare. 2018;6(4):122. doi:10.3390/healthcare6040122

9. Wong T, Tam WW. Handwashing practice and the use of personal protective equipment among medical students after the SARS epidemic in Hong Kong. American Journal of Infection Control. 2005;33(10):580-586. doi:10.1016/j.ajic.2005.05.025
10. Van Doremalen N, Bushmaker T, Munster V. Stability of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) under different environmental conditions. Eurosurveillance. 2013;18(38):20590. doi:10.2807/15607917.es2013.18.38.20590
11. Ki HK, Han SK, Son JS, Park SO. Risk of transmission via medical employees and importance of routine infection-prevention policy in a nosocomial outbreak of Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS): a descriptive analysis from a tertiary care hospital in South Korea. BMC Pulmonary Medicine. 2019;19:190-201. doi:10.1186/s12890-019-0940-5
12. Wiboonchutikul S, Manosuthi W, Likanonsakul S, et al. Lack of transmission among healthcare workers in contact with a case of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection in Thailand. Antimicrobial Resistance & Infection Control. 2016;5:21-25. doi:10.1186/s13756-016-0120-9
13. Lai MM, Cavanagh D. The Molecular Biology of Coronaviruses. Advances in Virus Research. 1997;48:1-100. doi.org/10.1016/s0065-3527(08)60286-9
14. Sizun J, Yu M, Talbot P. Survival of human coronaviruses 229E and OC43 in suspension and after drying on surfaces: a possible source of hospital-acquired infections. Journal of Hospital Infection. 2000;46(1);55-60. doi:10.1053/jhin.2000.0795
15. Warnes SL, Little ZR, Keevil CW. Human coronavirus 229E remains infectious on common touch surface materials. mBio. 2015;6(6):e01697-15. doi:10.1128/mbio.01697-15
16. Casanova LM, Jeon S, Rutala WA, Weber DJ, Sobsey MD. Effects of air temperature and relative humidity on coronavirus survival on surfaces. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 2010:76(9):2712-2717. doi:10.1128/aem.02291-09
17. Takasuka N. A subcutaneously injected UV-inactivated SARS coronavirus vaccine elicits systemic humoral immunity in mice. International Immunology. 2004;16(10):1423-1430. doi:10.1093/intimm/dxh143
18. Lai MY, Cheng PK, Lim WW. Survival of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2005;41(7):e67-e71. doi:10.1086/433186
19. Saknimit M, Inatsuki I, Sugiyama Y, Yagami K. Virucidal efficacy of physicochemical treatments against coronaviruses and parvoviruses of laboratory animals. Experimental Animals. 1988;37(3):341-345. doi:10.1538/expanim1978.37.3_341
20. Rabenau HF, Cinatl J, Morgenstern B, Bauer G, Preiser W, Doerr HW. Stability and inactivation of SARS coronavirus. Medical Microbiology and Immunology. 2005;194:1-6. doi:10.1007/s00430-004-0219-0
21. Chan KH, Peiris JS, Lam SY, Poon LL, Yuen KY, Seto WH. The effects of temperature and relative humidity on the viability of the SARS Coronavirus. Advances in Virology. 2011;1-7. doi:10.1155/2011/734690
22. Wood A, Payne D. The action of three antiseptics/disinfectants against enveloped and non-enveloped viruses. Journal of Hospital Infection. 1998;38(4):283-295. doi:10.1016/s0195-6701(98)90077-9
23. Pratelli A. Canine coronavirus inactivation with physical and chemical agents. The Veterinary Journal. 2008;177(1):71-79. doi:10.1016/j.tvjl.2007.03.019
24. Dellanno C, Vega Q, Boesenberg D. The antiviral action of common household disinfectants and antiseptics against murine hepatitis virus, a potential surrogate for SARS coronavirus. American Journal of Infection Control. 2009;37(8):649-652. doi:10.1016/j.ajic.2009.03.012
25. Wang C, Horby PW, Hayden FG, Gao GF. A novel coronavirus outbreak of global health concern. The Lancet. 2020;395(10223):470-473. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(20)30185-9
26. Pratelli A. Action of disinfectants on canine coronavirus replication in vitro. Zoonoses and Public Health. 2007;54:383-386. doi:10.1111/j.1863-2378.2007.01079.x
27. Kariwa H, Fujii N, Takashima I. Inactivation of SARS coronavirus by means of povidone-iodine, physical conditions and chemical reagents. Dermatology. 2006;212(1):119-123. doi:10.1159/000089211
28. Eggers M, Eickmann M, Zorn J. Rapid and effective virucidal activity of povidone-iodine products against Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-cov) and Modified Vaccinia Virus Ankara (MVA). Infectious Diseases and Therapy. 2015;4(4):491-501. doi:10.1007/s40121-015-0091-9
29. Eggers M, Koburger-Janssen T, Eickmann M, Zorn J. In vitro bactericidal and virucidal efficacy of povidone-iodine gargle/mouthwash against respiratory and oral tract pathogens. Infectious Diseases and Therapy. 2018;7(2):249-259. doi:10.1007/s40121-018-0200-7
30. Goyal S, Chander Y, Yezli S, Otter J. Evaluating the virucidal efficacy of hydrogen peroxide vapour. Journal of Hospital Infection. 2014;86(4):255-259. doi:10.1016/j.jhin.2014.02.003
31. Sattar SA, Springthorpe VS, Karim Y, Loro P. Chemical disinfection of nonporous inanimate surfaces experimentally contaminated with four human pathogenic viruses. Epidemiology and Infection. 1989;102(3):493-505. doi:10.1017/s0950268800030211
32. De Wilde AH, Snijder EJ, Kikkert M, Van Hemert MJ. Host Factors in Coronavirus Replication. In: Tripp R., Tompkins S. (eds) Roles of Host Gene and Non-coding RNA Expression in Virus Infection. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology, vol 419. Springer, Cham; 2017.
33. Chiodini J. Maps, masks and media – Traveller and practitioner resources for 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) acute respiratory virus. Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease. 2020;33:101574. doi:10.1016/j.tmaid.2020.101574
34. Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The Sage Dictionary of Health and Society. https://doi.org/10.41359781446215159.n134
35. Yu IT, Li Y, Wong TW, et al. Evidence of airborne transmission of the severe acute respiratory syndrome virus. New England Journal of Medicine. 2004;350(17):1731-1739. doi:10.1056/nejmoa032867
36. Sheahan TP, Sims AC, Leist SR, et al. Comparative therapeutic efficacy of remdesivir and combination lopinavir, ritonavir, and interferon beta against MERS-CoV. Nature Communications. 2020;11(1):222-235. doi:/10.1038/s41467-019-13940-6
37. Graham BS, Mascola JR, Fauci AS. Novel Vaccine Technologies. JAMA. 2018;319(14):1431-1432. doi:10.1001/jama.2018.0345
38. Technical guidance for laboratory testing of 2019-nCoV infection (third edition). Biosafety and Health. 2020;1-3. doi.org/10.1016/j.bsheal.2020.02.001
39. Devaux CA, Rolain J, Colson P, Raoult, D. New insights on the antiviral effects of chloroquine against coronavirus: what to expect for COVID-19. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents. 2020;1-32. doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105938
40. Gautret P, Lagier J, Parola P, et al. Hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin as a treatment of COVID-19: results of an open-label non-randomized clinical trial. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents. 2020. doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105949.