Kadın Yöneticiler: Görünmez Engellerin Gölgesinde Yükselme Çabası

Abstract

Günümüzde kadınlara yönelik önyargıyla ilgili farkındalık artsa da, iş hayatında, özellikle yüksek pozisyonlar söz konusuysa, önyargının gizil formları varlığını devam ettirmektedir. Cam tavan, kadınların çalıştıkları kurumlarda yükselmek istediklerinde, karşılaştıkları engelleri ifade eden ve kadınların ulaşabilecekleri en yüksek noktayı temsil eden görünmez bir bariyerdir. Yapılan güncel çalışmalar, cam tavanı aşmayı başarsalar bile kadınların ayrımcılığın farklı bir formuyla karşılaştığına işaret etmiştir: Kadınlar daha çok şirketin durumunun kötüye gittiği yani riskli durumlarda yöneticilik pozisyonuna getirilmektedir. Araştırmacılar ayrımcılığın gizil/örtük bir formu olarak değerlendirdikleri bu durumu “cam uçurum” terimiyle ifade etmiştir. Bu yazıda, çam uçurum kavramı farklı bulgulardan örneklerle açıklanmış ve farklı kuramsal yaklaşımlara değinilerek ele alınmıştır. Önyargılarla ilgili farkındalığın hem önyargılarla mücadele etmede hem de kadınların ve dolayısıyla kurumların başarısı adına oldukça önemli olması nedeniyle bu çalışmada temel olarak iş hayatında kadınlara yönelik, özellikle de örtük düzeydeki, önyargılarla ilgili farkındalığı artırmak hedeflenmiştir.

Keywords

• Cam tavan,Cam uçurum,Önyargı,Cinsiyet,Cinsiyet eşitsizliği

Women Managers: Struggle to Rise in the Shade of Invisible Obstacles

Abstract

Although there has recently been greater awareness on prejudices towards women, subtle forms of prejudice in working life continue to exist. Glass ceiling is as a subtle and transparent barrier implying the upper limit that women can reach when they aim to increase their positions in an organization. Current studies indicated that even though women manage to break the glass ceiling they face with another form of discrimination: they are appointed to leadership positions during periods of crisis. Researchers evaluated this situation as an implicit form of discrimination against women and use “glass cliff” as a term to define the situation. In the current review, by giving examples from different studies glass cliff has been introduced as a concept; besides, the topic has been discussed from different theoretical perspectives. This paper’s main aim is to increase awareness on prejudices towards women in working life because awareness is important tool to fight against prejudices and for the success of women and companies.

Keywords

• Glass ceiling,Glass cliff,Prejudice,Gender,Gender inequality

References

1. Ak-Kurt, D. (2011). Glass cliff in relation to hostile and benevolent sexism (Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi). Orta Doğu Teknik Üniversitesi, Ankara.
2. Ashby, J., Ryan, M.K. & Haslam, S.A. (2007). Legal work and the glass cliff: Evidence that women are preferentially selected to lead problematic cases. Journal of Women and the Law, 13, 775–794.
3. Brady D., Isaacs K., Reeves M., Burroway R. & Reynolds M. (2011). Sector, size, stability, and scandal: Explaining the presence of female executives in Fortune 500 firms. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 26, 84-105.
4. Brown R. (2010). Prejudice: Its social psychology (2. Baskı). Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.
5. Brown, E.R., Diekman, A.B. & Schneider, M.C. (2011). A change will do us good: Threats diminish typical preferences for male leaders. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37(7), 930-941.
6. Bruckmüller, S. & Branscombe, N.R. (2010). The glass cliff: When and why women are selected as leaders in crisis contexts. British Journal of Social Psychology, 49, 433-451.
7. Bruckmüller S., Ryan M.K., Rink F. & Haslam S.A. (2014). Beyond the glass ceiling: The glass cliff and its lessons for organizational policy. Social Issues and Policy Review, 8, 202-232.
8. Case, K.A. (2007). Raising male privilege awareness and reducing sexism: An evaluation of diversity courses. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31(4), 426-435.

9. Catalyst (2016, Eylül 19). Women in S&P 500 companies. http://www.catalyst.org/publication/132/us-women-in-business
10. Cook, A. & Glass, C. (2014). Women and top leadership positions: Towards an institutional analysis. Gender, Work, and Organization, 21, 91-103.
11. Davidson, T. (2003). Prejudice. New York: Franklin Watts.
12. Dovidio, J.F., Kawakami, K. & Gaertner, S.L. (2002). Implicit and explicit prejudice and interracial interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(1), 62-68.
13. Dovidio, J F., Kawakami, K., Johnson, C., Johnson, B. & Howard, A. (1997). On the nature of prejudice: Automatic and controlled processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 33(5), 510-540.
14. Eagly, A.H. & Carli, L.L. (2007). Through the labyrinth: The truth about how women become leaders. Boston: Harvard Business Press.
15. Eagly, A.H., Makhijani, M.G. & Klonsky, B.G. (1992). Gender and the evaluation of leaders: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 111, 3-22.
16. Eagly, A.H. & Mladinic, A. (1994). Are people prejudiced against women? Some answers from research on attitudes, gender stereotypes, and judgments of competence. European Review of Social Psychology, 5(1), 1-35.
17. Ferris, S.P., Jagannathan, M. & Pritchard, A.C. (2003). Too busy to mind the business? Monitoring by directors with multiple board appointments. The Journal of Finance, 58(3), 1087-1111.
18. Glick, P., Diebold, J., Bailey-Werner, B. & Zhu, L. (1997). The two faces of Adam: Ambivalent sexism and polarized attitudes toward women. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 12, 1323-1334.
19. Glick, P. & Fiske, S.T. (1996). The Ambivalent Sexism Inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 491-512.
20. Glick, P. & Fiske, S.T. (1997). Hostile and benevolent sexism: Measuring ambivalent sexist attitudes toward women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 119-135.
21. Grant Thornton International Business Report (2015). Women in business: The path to leadership. https://www.grantthornton.global/globalassets/1.-member-firms/global/insights/ibr-charts/ibr2015_wib_report_final.pdf
22. Greenwald, A.G., Poehlman, T A., Uhlmann, E. & Banaji, M.R. (2009). Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: III. Meta-analysis of predictive validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97(1), 17-41.
23. Haslam, S.A. & Ryan, M.K. (2008). The road to the glass cliff: Differences in the perceived suitability of men and women for leadership positions in succeeding and failing organizations. The Leadership Quarterly, 19, 530-546.
24. Hegewisch, A. & Hartmann, H. (2014). Occupational segregation and the gender wage gap: A job half done. Washington, DC: Institute for Women's Policy Research.
25. Hunt-Earle, K. (2012). Falling over a glass cliff: A study of the recruitment of women to leadership roles in troubled enterprises. Global Business and Organizational Excellence, 31(5), 44-53.
26. Hymowitz, C. & Schellhardt, T.D. (1986, 24 Mart). The glass ceiling: Why women can’t seem to break the invisible barrier that blocks them from the top jobs. The Wall Street Journal, s.1.
27. Judge, E. (2003). Women on board: Help or hindrance? The Times, s. 21.
28. Kulich, C., Ryan, M.K. & Haslam, S.A. (2014). The political glass cliff: Understanding how seat selection contributes to the underperformance of ethnic minority candidates. Political Research Quarterly, 67(1), 84-95.
29. Masser, B. & Abrams, D. (2004). Reinforcing the glass ceiling: The consequences of hostile sexism for female managerial candidates. Sex Roles, 51, 609-615.
30. Morrison, A.M., White, R.P. & Van Velsor, E. (1987). Breaking the glass ceiling: Can women reach the top of America’s largest corporations? Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
31. Newport, F. & Wilke, J. (2013). Americans still prefer a male boss. http://www.gallup.com/poll/165791/americans-prefer-male-boss.aspx
32. Nosek, B.A., Banaji, M.R. & Greenwald, A.G. (2002). Math= male, me= female, therefore math≠ me. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(1), 44.
33. Örücü, E., Kılıç, R. & Kılıç, T. (2007) Cam tavan sendromu ve kadınların üst düzey yönetici pozisyonuna yükselmelerindeki engeller: Balıkesir ili örneği. Celal Bayar Üniversitesi İİBF Yönetim ve Ekonomi Dergisi, 14(2),117-135.
34. Pettijohn, T.F. & Walzer, A.S. (2008). Reducing racism, sexism, and homophobia in college students by completing a psychology of prejudice course. College Student Journal, 42(2), 459-468.
35. Ragins, B.R., Townsend, B. & Mattis, M. (1998). Gender gap in the executive suite: CEOs and female executives report on breaking the glass ceiling. Academy of Management Executive, 12, 28-42.
36. Rowe, M.P. (1990). Barriers to equality: The power of subtle discrimination to maintain unequal opportunity. Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal, 3(2), 153-163.
37. Ryan, M.K. & Haslam, S.A. (2005). The glass cliff: Evidence that women are over-represented in precarious leadership positions. British Journal of Management, 16, 81-90.
38. Ryan, M.K. & Haslam, S.A. (2007). The glass cliff: Exploring the dynamics surrounding the appointment of women to precarious leadership positions. Academy and Management Review, 32(2), 549-572.
39. Ryan, M.K., Haslam, S.A., Hersby, M.D. & Bongiorno R. (2011). Think crisis–think female: The glass cliff and contextual variation in the think manager–think male stereotype. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96(3), 470-484.
40. Ryan, M.K., Haslam, S.A., Hersby, M.D., Kulich, C. & Atkins, C. (2007a). Opting out or Pushed off the Edge? The glass cliff and the precariousness of women’s leadership positions. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 1(1), 266-279.
41. Ryan, M.K., Haslam, S.A. & Kulich, C. (2010). Politics and the glass cliff: Evidence that women are preferentially selected to contest hard-to-win seats. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 34, 56–64.
42. Ryan, M.K., Haslam, S.A., Morgenroth, T., Rink, F., Stoker, J. & Peters, K. (2016). Getting on top of the glass cliff: Reviewing a decade of evidence, explanations, and impact. The Leadership Quarterly, 27(3), 446-455.
43. Ryan, M.K., Haslam, S.A. & Postmes, T. (2007b). Reactions to the glass cliff: Gender differences in the explanations for the precariousness of women's leadership positions. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 20(2), 182-197.
44. Sabharwal, M. (2015). From glass ceiling to glass cliff: Women in senior executive service. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 25, 399-426.
45. Sakallı-Uğurlu, N. & Beydoğan, B. (2002). Turkish college students' attitudes toward women managers: The effect of patriarchy, sexism, and gender differences. Journal of Psychology, 136, 1-11.
46. Schein, V.E. & Mueller, R. (1992). Sex role stereotyping and requisite management characteristics: A cross cultural look. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 13, 439-447.
47. Schein, V.E., Mueller, R., Lituchy, T. & Liu, J. (1996). Think manager–think male: A global phenomenon? Journal of Organizational Behavior, 17, 33-41.
48. Sümer, H.C. (2006). Women in management: Still waiting to be full members of the club. Sex Roles, 55, 63-72.
49. Tajfel, H. (1982). Social psychology of intergroup relations. Annual Review of Psychology, 33, 1–39. The Economist (2015). The Glass-ceiling index.. http://www.economist.com/blogs/graphicdetail/2015/03/daily-chart-1?fsrc=scn/tw/te/bl/ed/theglassindex
50. Townsend, B. (1996). Room at the top for women. American Demographics, 18, 28-37.
51. Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi (2016). Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi milletvekilleri dağılımı. https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/develop/owa/milletvekillerimiz_sd.dagilim.
52. Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu (2015). İstatistiklerle kadın, 2014. http://www.tuik.gov.tr/PreHaberBultenleri.do?id=18619
53. Uyar, E. (2011). The glass cliff: Differences in perceived suitability and leadership ability of men and women for leadership positions in high and poor performing companies. (Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi) Orta Doğu Teknik Üniversitesi, Ankara.
54. Viki, G.T., Massey, K. & Masser, B. (2005). When chivalry backfires: Benevolent sexism and attitudes toward Myra Hindley. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 10, 109-120.
55. Wilson-Kovacs, D.M., Ryan, M. & Haslam, A. (2006). The glass-cliff: women's career paths in the UK private IT sector. Equal Opportunities International, 25(8), 674-687.
56. Wright, K. (2014). Think crisis-think female? An evaluation of psychological and structural processes behind the glass cliff effect. 영미연구, 31, 433-452.