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The effectiveness of iso-alcohols in reducing vapor pressure and enhancing fuel properties of ethanol-gasoline mixtures

Year 2025, Volume: 14 Issue: 1, 1 - 10, 25.03.2025

Nour Eddın Bulbul Abdülvahap Çakmak

Abstract

Ethanol, with its high octane rating and emissions advantages, is a viable and renewable alternative to gasoline for Spark-Ignition (SI) engines. However, when mixed with gasoline, ethanol forms an azeotropic mixture that increases the fuel's vapor pressure, potentially causing a clogged fuel line, engine stalling, and unstable operation. This study aimed to address the high vapor pressure challenge by adding C3, C4, and C5 iso-alcohols, namely, isopropanol (IP), isobutanol (IB), and isoamyl alcohol (IA), to reduce the vapor pressure of ethanol-gasoline blends. Fuel properties, including Reid vapor pressure (RVP), density, and distillation temperatures, were measured after each iso-alcohol was individually added to ethanol-gasoline blends (E10, E20, and E30) at a 5% volumetric ratio. According to the findings, E10 and E20 behaved as an azeotropic mixture, yielding increased vapor pressure. The highest RVP of 63.2 kPa was measured for E10. However, adding IP, IB, and IA alcohols to E10 reduced the RVP to 61.8 kPa, 61.3 kPa, and 61.1 kPa, respectively. Including iso-alcohols also increased the density of ethanol-gasoline blends, with the highest density of 763.6 kg/m³ was measured for E30+IA5. Furthermore, adding iso-alcohols improved the distillation profiles, octane rating, and heating value of the ethanol-gasoline blends. More importantly, it was found that the measured fuel properties met the requirements of the European Standards for Gasoline (EN 228) except for some gasoline samples' distilled values for E70 and E100. Based on the findings, C3-C5 iso-alcohols effectively reduce the high vapor pressure associated with ethanol-gasoline azeotropic mixtures, allowing a higher volume of renewable ethanol blending.

Keywords

Ethanol-gasoline blends Reid vapor pressure Iso-alcohols Sustainable fuel Spark-ignition engine

References

  • Malla FA, Bandh SA, Wani SA, Hoang AT, Sofi NA., "Biofuels: Potential Alternatives to Fossil Fuels BT - Biofuels in Circular Economy", In: Bandh SA, Malla FA, editors., Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore, p. 1–15, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5837-3_1.
  • Çakmak A., "Improvement of exhaust emissions in a diesel engine with the addition of an oxygenated additive to diesel-biodiesel blends", Energetika, 68:79–90, 2022. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.6001/energetika.v68i1.4859.
  • Prasad S, Yadav KK, Kumar S, Pandita P, Bhutto JK, Alreshidi MA, et al., "Review on biofuel production: Sustainable development scenario, environment, and climate change perspectives − A sustainable approach", Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 12:111996, 2024. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2024.111996.
  • Pałuchowska M, St\kepień Z, Żak G., "The prospects for the use of ethanol as a fuel component and its potential in the reduction of exhaust emissions", Combust Engines, 53:80–92, 2014.
  • Gaspar DJ, Phillips SD, Polikarpov E, Albrecht KO, Jones SB, George A, et al., "Measuring and predicting the vapor pressure of gasoline containing oxygenates", Fuel, 243:630–44, 2019. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2019.01.137.
  • Andersen VF, Anderson JE, Wallington TJ, Mueller SA, Nielsen OJ., "Vapor Pressures of Alcohol−Gasoline Blends", Energy & Fuels, 24:3647–54, 2010. https://doi.org/10.1021/ef100254w.
  • Çakmak A, Özcan H., "Benzin İçin Oksijenli Yakıt Katkıları", Politek Dergisi, 21:831–40, 2018. https://doi.org/10.2339/politeknik.457956.
  • Gershon O, Asaolu K., "Evaporative quality of Nigeria’s gasoline: truck loading perspective", Energy, Ecology and Environment, 6:307–15, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40974-020-00184-0.
  • Amine M, Barakat Y., "Effect of cyclohexanol on phase stability and volatility behavior of hydrous ethanol-gasoline blends", Egyptian Journal of Petroleum, 30:7–12, 2021. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpe.2021.04.001.
  • Awad OI, Zhou B, Chen Z, Kadirgama K, Mohammed MN, Ramasamy D., "Influence of PODE1 additive into ethanol-gasoline blends (E10) on fuel properties and phase stability", Heliyon, 9, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e22364
  • Dash N, Tamilvendan D., "Effective Utilization of Ethanol-Blended Motor Gasoline by Addition of Co-solvent Isopropanol", Transactions of the Indian National Academy of Engineering, 8:379–87, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41403-023-00404-z.
  • Aghahossein Shirazi S, Abdollahipoor B, Martinson J, Windom B, Foust TD, Reardon KF., "Effects of dual-alcohol gasoline blends on physiochemical properties and volatility behavior", Fuel, 252:542–52, 2019. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2019.04.105.
  • Gong J, Cai J, Tang C., "A comparative study of emission characteristics of propanol isomers/gasoline blends combined with EGR", SAE International Journal of Fuels and Lubricants, 7:200–6, 2014.
  • Li D, Yu X, Guo Z, Zhang J, Wang T, Li Y., "Effects of isopropanol ratio at different excess air ratios on combustion and emissions characteristics of an isopropanol/gasoline dual-fuel combined injection SI engine", Fuel, 333:126507, 2023. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2022.126507.
  • Yusoff MNAM, Zulkifli NWM, Masjuki HH, Harith MH, Syahir AZ, Kalam MA, et al., "Performance and emission characteristics of a spark ignition engine fuelled with butanol isomer-gasoline blends", Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 57:23–38, 2017. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2017.09.004.
  • Yadav PS, Gautam R, Le TT, Khandelwal N, Le AT, Hoang AT., "A comprehensive analysis of energy, exergy, performance, and emissions of a spark-ignition engine running on blends of gasoline, ethanol, and isoamyl alcohol", Energy, 307:132548, 2024. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2024.132548.
  • Coker AK., "Petroleum, Complex-Mixture Fractionation, Gas Processing, Dehydration, Hydrocarbon Absorption and Stripping: Part 2: Fractionation", Ludwig's Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants, 269–344, 2010.
  • McCormick RL, Ratcliff MA, Christensen E, Fouts L, Luecke J, Chupka GM, et al., "Properties of Oxygenates Found in Upgraded Biomass Pyrolysis Oil as Components of Spark and Compression Ignition Engine Fuels", Energy & Fuels, 29:2453–61, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1021/ef502893g.
  • Calvin YL, Hariyanto PAT, Usman AI, Masuku M, Wibowo CS, Maymuchar, et al., "Volatility and physicochemical properties of gasoline-ethanol blends with gasoline RON-based 88, 90, and 92", Fuel, 307:121850, 2022. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2021.121850.
  • Gandolfo J, Lawler B, Gainey B., "Experimental study of high compression ratio spark ignition with ethanol, ethanol–water blends, and methanol", Fuel, 375:132528, 2024. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2024.132528.
  • Altun Ş, Adin MŞ, İlçin K., "Monohydric aliphatic alcohols as liquid fuels for using in internal combustion engines: A review", Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part E: Journal of Process Mechanical Engineering, 09544089231160472, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1177/09544089231160472.
  • Bharath BK, Arul Mozhi Selvan V., "Influence of Higher Alcohol Additives in Methanol–Gasoline Blends on the Performance and Emissions of an Unmodified Automotive SI Engine: A Review", Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering, 46:7057–85, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13369-021-05408-x.
  • Shirazi SA, Abdollahipoor B, Windom B, Reardon KF, Foust TD., "Effects of blending C3-C4 alcohols on motor gasoline properties and performance of spark ignition engines: A review", Fuel Processing Technology, 197:106194, 2020. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2019.106194.
  • Olalere RK, Zhang G, Liu H, Ma X, Xu H., "Experimental study of combustion and emissions characteristics of low blend ratio of 2-methylfuran/ 2-methyltetrahyrofuran with gasoline in a DISI engine", Fuel, 382:133799, 2025. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2024.133799.
  • Abdellatief TMM, Ershov MA, Makhmudova AE, Kapustin VM, Makhova UA, Klimov NA, et al., "Novel variants conceptional technology to produce eco-friendly sustainable high octane-gasoline biofuel based on renewable gasoline component", Fuel, 366:131400, 2024. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2024.131400.
  • The members of the European Automobile Manufacturers Association, “ACEA Positiom Paper Revision of the Fuel Quality Directive (FQD)”, 2022.

The effectiveness of iso-alcohols in reducing vapor pressure and enhancing fuel properties of ethanol-gasoline mixtures

Year 2025, Volume: 14 Issue: 1, 1 - 10, 25.03.2025

Nour Eddın Bulbul Abdülvahap Çakmak

Abstract

Ethanol, with its high octane rating and emissions advantages, is a viable and renewable alternative to gasoline for Spark-Ignition (SI) engines. However, when mixed with gasoline, ethanol forms an azeotropic mixture that increases the fuel's vapor pressure, potentially causing a clogged fuel line, engine stalling, and unstable operation. This study aimed to address the high vapor pressure challenge by adding C3, C4, and C5 iso-alcohols, namely, isopropanol (IP), isobutanol (IB), and isoamyl alcohol (IA), to reduce the vapor pressure of ethanol-gasoline blends. Fuel properties, including Reid vapor pressure (RVP), density, and distillation temperatures, were measured after each iso-alcohol was individually added to ethanol-gasoline blends (E10, E20, and E30) at a 5% volumetric ratio. According to the findings, E10 and E20 behaved as an azeotropic mixture, yielding increased vapor pressure. The highest RVP of 63.2 kPa was measured for E10. However, adding IP, IB, and IA alcohols to E10 reduced the RVP to 61.8 kPa, 61.3 kPa, and 61.1 kPa, respectively. Including iso-alcohols also increased the density of ethanol-gasoline blends, with the highest density of 763.6 kg/m³ was measured for E30+IA5. Furthermore, adding iso-alcohols improved the distillation profiles, octane rating, and heating value of the ethanol-gasoline blends. More importantly, it was found that the measured fuel properties met the requirements of the European Standards for Gasoline (EN 228) except for some gasoline samples' distilled values for E70 and E100. Based on the findings, C3-C5 iso-alcohols effectively reduce the high vapor pressure associated with ethanol-gasoline azeotropic mixtures, allowing a higher volume of renewable ethanol blending.

Keywords

Ethanol-gasoline blends Reid vapor pressure Iso-alcohols Sustainable fuel Spark-ignition engine

References

  • Malla FA, Bandh SA, Wani SA, Hoang AT, Sofi NA., "Biofuels: Potential Alternatives to Fossil Fuels BT - Biofuels in Circular Economy", In: Bandh SA, Malla FA, editors., Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore, p. 1–15, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5837-3_1.
  • Çakmak A., "Improvement of exhaust emissions in a diesel engine with the addition of an oxygenated additive to diesel-biodiesel blends", Energetika, 68:79–90, 2022. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.6001/energetika.v68i1.4859.
  • Prasad S, Yadav KK, Kumar S, Pandita P, Bhutto JK, Alreshidi MA, et al., "Review on biofuel production: Sustainable development scenario, environment, and climate change perspectives − A sustainable approach", Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 12:111996, 2024. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2024.111996.
  • Pałuchowska M, St\kepień Z, Żak G., "The prospects for the use of ethanol as a fuel component and its potential in the reduction of exhaust emissions", Combust Engines, 53:80–92, 2014.
  • Gaspar DJ, Phillips SD, Polikarpov E, Albrecht KO, Jones SB, George A, et al., "Measuring and predicting the vapor pressure of gasoline containing oxygenates", Fuel, 243:630–44, 2019. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2019.01.137.
  • Andersen VF, Anderson JE, Wallington TJ, Mueller SA, Nielsen OJ., "Vapor Pressures of Alcohol−Gasoline Blends", Energy & Fuels, 24:3647–54, 2010. https://doi.org/10.1021/ef100254w.
  • Çakmak A, Özcan H., "Benzin İçin Oksijenli Yakıt Katkıları", Politek Dergisi, 21:831–40, 2018. https://doi.org/10.2339/politeknik.457956.
  • Gershon O, Asaolu K., "Evaporative quality of Nigeria’s gasoline: truck loading perspective", Energy, Ecology and Environment, 6:307–15, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40974-020-00184-0.
  • Amine M, Barakat Y., "Effect of cyclohexanol on phase stability and volatility behavior of hydrous ethanol-gasoline blends", Egyptian Journal of Petroleum, 30:7–12, 2021. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpe.2021.04.001.
  • Awad OI, Zhou B, Chen Z, Kadirgama K, Mohammed MN, Ramasamy D., "Influence of PODE1 additive into ethanol-gasoline blends (E10) on fuel properties and phase stability", Heliyon, 9, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e22364
  • Dash N, Tamilvendan D., "Effective Utilization of Ethanol-Blended Motor Gasoline by Addition of Co-solvent Isopropanol", Transactions of the Indian National Academy of Engineering, 8:379–87, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41403-023-00404-z.
  • Aghahossein Shirazi S, Abdollahipoor B, Martinson J, Windom B, Foust TD, Reardon KF., "Effects of dual-alcohol gasoline blends on physiochemical properties and volatility behavior", Fuel, 252:542–52, 2019. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2019.04.105.
  • Gong J, Cai J, Tang C., "A comparative study of emission characteristics of propanol isomers/gasoline blends combined with EGR", SAE International Journal of Fuels and Lubricants, 7:200–6, 2014.
  • Li D, Yu X, Guo Z, Zhang J, Wang T, Li Y., "Effects of isopropanol ratio at different excess air ratios on combustion and emissions characteristics of an isopropanol/gasoline dual-fuel combined injection SI engine", Fuel, 333:126507, 2023. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2022.126507.
  • Yusoff MNAM, Zulkifli NWM, Masjuki HH, Harith MH, Syahir AZ, Kalam MA, et al., "Performance and emission characteristics of a spark ignition engine fuelled with butanol isomer-gasoline blends", Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 57:23–38, 2017. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2017.09.004.
  • Yadav PS, Gautam R, Le TT, Khandelwal N, Le AT, Hoang AT., "A comprehensive analysis of energy, exergy, performance, and emissions of a spark-ignition engine running on blends of gasoline, ethanol, and isoamyl alcohol", Energy, 307:132548, 2024. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2024.132548.
  • Coker AK., "Petroleum, Complex-Mixture Fractionation, Gas Processing, Dehydration, Hydrocarbon Absorption and Stripping: Part 2: Fractionation", Ludwig's Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants, 269–344, 2010.
  • McCormick RL, Ratcliff MA, Christensen E, Fouts L, Luecke J, Chupka GM, et al., "Properties of Oxygenates Found in Upgraded Biomass Pyrolysis Oil as Components of Spark and Compression Ignition Engine Fuels", Energy & Fuels, 29:2453–61, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1021/ef502893g.
  • Calvin YL, Hariyanto PAT, Usman AI, Masuku M, Wibowo CS, Maymuchar, et al., "Volatility and physicochemical properties of gasoline-ethanol blends with gasoline RON-based 88, 90, and 92", Fuel, 307:121850, 2022. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2021.121850.
  • Gandolfo J, Lawler B, Gainey B., "Experimental study of high compression ratio spark ignition with ethanol, ethanol–water blends, and methanol", Fuel, 375:132528, 2024. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2024.132528.
  • Altun Ş, Adin MŞ, İlçin K., "Monohydric aliphatic alcohols as liquid fuels for using in internal combustion engines: A review", Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part E: Journal of Process Mechanical Engineering, 09544089231160472, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1177/09544089231160472.
  • Bharath BK, Arul Mozhi Selvan V., "Influence of Higher Alcohol Additives in Methanol–Gasoline Blends on the Performance and Emissions of an Unmodified Automotive SI Engine: A Review", Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering, 46:7057–85, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13369-021-05408-x.
  • Shirazi SA, Abdollahipoor B, Windom B, Reardon KF, Foust TD., "Effects of blending C3-C4 alcohols on motor gasoline properties and performance of spark ignition engines: A review", Fuel Processing Technology, 197:106194, 2020. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2019.106194.
  • Olalere RK, Zhang G, Liu H, Ma X, Xu H., "Experimental study of combustion and emissions characteristics of low blend ratio of 2-methylfuran/ 2-methyltetrahyrofuran with gasoline in a DISI engine", Fuel, 382:133799, 2025. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2024.133799.
  • Abdellatief TMM, Ershov MA, Makhmudova AE, Kapustin VM, Makhova UA, Klimov NA, et al., "Novel variants conceptional technology to produce eco-friendly sustainable high octane-gasoline biofuel based on renewable gasoline component", Fuel, 366:131400, 2024. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2024.131400.
  • The members of the European Automobile Manufacturers Association, “ACEA Positiom Paper Revision of the Fuel Quality Directive (FQD)”, 2022.
There are 26 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language English
Subjects Automotive Engineering (Other)
Journal Section Article
Authors

Nour Eddın Bulbul This is me 0009-0003-6092-1776

Abdülvahap Çakmak 0000-0003-1434-6697

Publication Date March 25, 2025
Submission Date November 27, 2024
Acceptance Date January 2, 2025
Published in Issue Year 2025 Volume: 14 Issue: 1

Cite

APA Bulbul, N. E., & Çakmak, A. (2025). The effectiveness of iso-alcohols in reducing vapor pressure and enhancing fuel properties of ethanol-gasoline mixtures. International Journal of Automotive Engineering and Technologies, 14(1), 1-10.
AMA Bulbul NE, Çakmak A. The effectiveness of iso-alcohols in reducing vapor pressure and enhancing fuel properties of ethanol-gasoline mixtures. International Journal of Automotive Engineering and Technologies. March 2025;14(1):1-10.
Chicago Bulbul, Nour Eddın, and Abdülvahap Çakmak. “The Effectiveness of Iso-Alcohols in Reducing Vapor Pressure and Enhancing Fuel Properties of Ethanol-Gasoline Mixtures”. International Journal of Automotive Engineering and Technologies 14, no. 1 (March 2025): 1-10.
EndNote Bulbul NE, Çakmak A (March 1, 2025) The effectiveness of iso-alcohols in reducing vapor pressure and enhancing fuel properties of ethanol-gasoline mixtures. International Journal of Automotive Engineering and Technologies 14 1 1–10.
IEEE N. E. Bulbul and A. Çakmak, “The effectiveness of iso-alcohols in reducing vapor pressure and enhancing fuel properties of ethanol-gasoline mixtures”, International Journal of Automotive Engineering and Technologies, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 1–10, 2025.
ISNAD Bulbul, Nour Eddın - Çakmak, Abdülvahap. “The Effectiveness of Iso-Alcohols in Reducing Vapor Pressure and Enhancing Fuel Properties of Ethanol-Gasoline Mixtures”. International Journal of Automotive Engineering and Technologies 14/1 (March 2025), 1-10.
JAMA Bulbul NE, Çakmak A. The effectiveness of iso-alcohols in reducing vapor pressure and enhancing fuel properties of ethanol-gasoline mixtures. International Journal of Automotive Engineering and Technologies. 2025;14:1–10.
MLA Bulbul, Nour Eddın and Abdülvahap Çakmak. “The Effectiveness of Iso-Alcohols in Reducing Vapor Pressure and Enhancing Fuel Properties of Ethanol-Gasoline Mixtures”. International Journal of Automotive Engineering and Technologies, vol. 14, no. 1, 2025, pp. 1-10.
Vancouver Bulbul NE, Çakmak A. The effectiveness of iso-alcohols in reducing vapor pressure and enhancing fuel properties of ethanol-gasoline mixtures. International Journal of Automotive Engineering and Technologies. 2025;14(1):1-10.
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