The Biochemical Roles of The Boron Element and Its Effects on Human Metabolism

Abstract

In this article, boron identified by the World Health Organisation as one of the essential elements for human health is of strategic importance due to its critical roles in physiological processes and its unique chemical structure based on electron deficiency. From ancient times to the present day, this trace element has, thanks to its unique structure, become an indispensable raw material across a very wide range of sectors, from agriculture to high-tech industries. This study provides a general overview of boron’s fundamental biological, historical and chemical properties, whilst assessing the element’s potential for innovative applications in modern science and future areas of research. In this context, this study provides a general overview at the molecular level of the mechanisms of boron absorption by the gastrointestinal system, transcellular transport and binding to plasma proteins. Boron’s vital roles in cellular homeostasis have been addressed from both mathematical and physiological perspectives, based on active transport systems such as NaBC1 (SLC4A11) and renal clearance kinetics. Furthermore, the formation of boron cyclic ester compounds and the regulation of NAD+/NADH systems and serine proteases via borate’s interaction with the cis-diol functional groups of biomolecules have been discussed in relation to this mechanism. Furthermore, the effect of boron on the activities of antioxidant defence enzymes, such as SOD and glutathione metabolic systems, and ALP enzymes has been discussed in detail from a biochemical perspective within the context of the existing literature. Boron is a dynamic metabolic accelerator that increases the retention of calcium and magnesium and prolongs the half-life of vitamin D, whilst also raising free testosterone levels by reducing SHBG affinity. At the cellular level, it triggers bone formation and reduces chronic inflammation by inhibiting the NF-κB pathway. Furthermore, via the ‘proliferation paradox’, it accelerates repair in healthy tissues whilst disrupting the AKT/mTOR signalling pathway in cancer cells, thereby selectively triggering apoptosis (cell death) without damaging surrounding tissues.

Keywords

• Antioxidant defense
• biological functions
• boron
• boron metabolism
• cellular homeostasis.

Bor Elementinin Biyokimyasal Rolleri ve İnsan Metabolizması Üzerindeki Etkileri

Abstract

Bu makalede, Dünya Sağlık Örgütü tarafından insan sağlığı için temel elementlerden biri olarak tanımlanan bor, fizyolojik süreçlerdeki kritik rolleri ve elektron eksikliğine dayanan benzersiz kimyasal yapısı nedeniyle stratejik öneme sahiptir. Antik çağlardan günümüze kadar, bu eser element, benzersiz yapısı sayesinde tarımdan yüksek teknoloji endüstrilerine kadar çok geniş bir yelpazede vazgeçilmez bir hammadde haline gelmiştir. Bu çalışma, borun temel biyolojik, tarihsel ve kimyasal özelliklerine genel bir bakış sunarken, modern bilimde ve gelecekteki araştırma alanlarında bu elementin yenilikçi uygulamalar için potansiyelini de değerlendirmektedir. Bu bağlamda, bu çalışma gastrointestinal sistem tarafından bor emilimi, transselüler taşıma ve plazma proteinlerine bağlanma mekanizmalarına moleküler düzeyde genel bir bakış sunmaktadır. Borun hücresel homeostazdaki hayati rolleri, NaBC1 (SLC4A11) gibi aktif taşıma sistemleri ve böbrek klirensi kinetiği temel alınarak hem matematiksel hem de fizyolojik perspektiflerden ele alınmıştır. Ayrıca, bu mekanizma bağlamında, borun biyomoleküllerin cis-diol fonksiyonel gruplarıyla etkileşimi yoluyla bor siklik ester bileşiklerinin oluşumu ile NAD+/NADH sistemlerinin ve serin proteazlarının düzenlenmesi ele alınmıştır. Ayrıca, borun SOD ve glutatyon metabolik sistemleri gibi antioksidan savunma enzimlerinin ve ALP enzimlerinin aktiviteleri üzerindeki etkisi, mevcut literatür bağlamında biyokimyasal bir bakış açısıyla ayrıntılı olarak ele alınmıştır. Bor, kalsiyum ve magnezyumun tutulmasını artıran ve D vitamininin yarı ömrünü uzatan dinamik bir metabolik hızlandırıcıdır; aynı zamanda SHBG afinitesini azaltarak serbest testosteron seviyelerini de yükseltir. Hücresel düzeyde, kemik oluşumunu tetikler ve NF-κB yolunu inhibe ederek kronik iltihabı azaltır. Ayrıca, “proliferasyon paradoksu” yoluyla sağlıklı dokulardaki onarımı hızlandırırken, kanser hücrelerinde AKT/mTOR sinyal yolunu bozarak, çevre dokulara zarar vermeden seçici olarak apoptozu (hücre ölümü) tetikler.

Keywords

• Antioksidan savunma
• biyolojik işlevler
• bor
• bor metabolizması
• hücresel homeostaz.

References

1. [1] S. Günbatar, A. Aygun, Y. Karataş, M. Gülcan, and F. Şen, “Carbon-nanotube-based rhodium nanoparticles as highly-active catalyst for hydrolytic dehydrogenation of dimethylamineborane at room temperature,” J. Colloid Interface Sci., vol. 530, pp. 321–327, Nov. 2018, doi: 10.1016/J.JCIS.2018.06.100.
2. [2] E. Halvaci et al., “The role of boron in new generation technologies and sustainable future”.
3. [3] F. Gol et al., “The use of boron based materials on efficiency of environmentally friendly mesoporous ceramics.,” Environ. Res., vol. 216, Jan. 2022, doi: 10.1016/J.ENVRES.2022.114454.
4. [4] R. Bayat et al., “Production of boron nitride/titanium dioxide composite nanofibers via sustainable electrospinning methods and their environmentally friendly photocatalytic and antibacterial applications,” RSC Adv., vol. 15, no. 23, pp. 18648–18656, Jun. 2025, doi: 10.1039/D4RA09118C.
5. [5] F. Mutlag et al., “The Role of Boron in Next-Generation Technologies and a Sustainable Future,” 2023.
6. [6] R. Mahious, E. Halvaci, and F. Sen, “Boron in plant growth and development: roles, nutrient interaction and implications for sustainable agriculture,” 2023.
7. [7] H. Khaliq, Z. Juming, and P. Ke-Mei, “The Physiological Role of Boron on Health,” Biol. Trace Elem. Res., vol. 186, no. 1, pp. 31–51, Nov. 2018, doi: 10.1007/S12011-018-1284-3/METRICS.
8. [8] A. Biţă et al., “New Insights into Boron Essentiality in Humans and Animals,” Int. J. Mol. Sci., vol. 23, no. 16, p. 9147, Aug. 2022, doi: 10.3390/IJMS23169147/S1.

9. [9] M. Białek, M. Czauderna, K. A. Krajewska, and W. Przybylski, “Selected physiological effects of boron compounds for animals and humans. A review,” J. Anim. Feed Sci., vol. 28, no. 4, pp. 307–320, Dec. 2019, doi: 10.22358/JAFS/114546/2019.
10. [10] B. Sen, A. Şavk, and F. Sen, “Highly efficient monodisperse Pt nanoparticles confined in the carbon black hybrid material for hydrogen liberation,” J. Colloid Interface Sci., vol. 520, pp. 112–118, Jun. 2018, doi: 10.1016/J.JCIS.2018.03.004.
11. [11] Y. Yildiz et al., “Highly Monodisperse Pt/Rh Nanoparticles Confined in the Graphene Oxide for Highly Efficient and Reusable Sorbents for Methylene Blue Removal from Aqueous Solutions,” ChemistrySelect, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 697–701, Jan. 2017, doi: 10.1002/SLCT.201601608;REQUESTEDJOURNAL:JOURNAL:23656549;PAGEGROUP:STRING:PUBLICATION.
12. [12] B. Şahin, E. Demir, A. Aygün, H. Gündüz, and F. Şen, “Investigation of the effect of pomegranate extract and monodisperse silver nanoparticle combination on MCF-7 cell line,” J. Biotechnol., vol. 260, pp. 79–83, Oct. 2017, doi: 10.1016/J.JBIOTEC.2017.09.012.
13. [13] Y. Yildiz, E. Erken, H. Pamuk, H. Sert, and F. Şen, “Monodisperse Pt Nanoparticles Assembled on Reduced Graphene Oxide: Highly Efficient and Reusable Catalyst for Methanol Oxidation and Dehydrocoupling of Dimethylamine-Borane (DMAB),” J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol., vol. 16, no. 6, pp. 5951–5958, Jun. 2016, doi: 10.1166/JNN.2016.11710.
14. [14] Y. Wu et al., “Hydrogen generation from methanolysis of sodium borohydride using waste coffee oil modified zinc oxide nanoparticles and their photocatalytic activities,” Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, vol. 48, no. 17, pp. 6613–6623, Feb. 2023, doi: 10.1016/J.IJHYDENE.2022.04.177.
15. [15] B. Şen, A. Aygün, A. Şavk, S. Akocak, and F. Şen, “Bimetallic palladium–iridium alloy nanoparticles as highly efficient and stable catalyst for the hydrogen evolution reaction,” Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, vol. 43, no. 44, pp. 20183–20191, Nov. 2018, doi: 10.1016/J.IJHYDENE.2018.07.081.
16. [16] B. Sen, S. Kuzu, E. Demir, T. Onal Okyay, and F. Sen, “Hydrogen liberation from the dehydrocoupling of dimethylamine–borane at room temperature by using novel and highly monodispersed RuPtNi nanocatalysts decorated with graphene oxide,” Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, vol. 42, no. 36, pp. 23299–23306, Sep. 2017, doi: 10.1016/J.IJHYDENE.2017.04.213.
17. [17] Z. Ozturk, F. Sen, S. Sen, and G. Gokagac, “The preparation and characterization of nano-sized Pt-Pd/C catalysts and comparison of their superior catalytic activities for methanol and ethanol oxidation,” J. Mater. Sci., vol. 47, no. 23, pp. 8134–8144, Jul. 2012, doi: 10.1007/S10853-012-6709-3/FIGURES/12.
18. [18] H. Göksu, B. Çelik, Y. Yıldız, F. Şen, and B. Kılbaş, “Superior Monodisperse CNT-Supported CoPd (CoPd@CNT) Nanoparticles for Selective Reduction of Nitro Compounds to Primary Amines with NaBH4 in Aqueous Medium,” ChemistrySelect, vol. 1, no. 10, pp. 2366–2372, Jul. 2016, doi: 10.1002/SLCT.201600509.
19. [19] F. Şen, S. Şen, and G. Gökaǧaç, “Efficiency enhancement of methanol/ethanol oxidation reactions on Pt nanoparticles prepared using a new surfactant, 1,1-dimethyl heptanethiol,” Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 1676–1684, Jan. 2011, doi: 10.1039/C0CP01212B.
20. [20] B. Sen, S. Kuzu, E. Demir, S. Akocak, and F. Sen, “Polymer-graphene hybride decorated Pt nanoparticles as highly efficient and reusable catalyst for the dehydrogenation of dimethylamine–borane at room temperature,” Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, vol. 42, no. 36, pp. 23284–23291, Sep. 2017, doi: 10.1016/J.IJHYDENE.2017.05.112.
21. [21] E. Erken, Y. Yildiz, B. Kilbaş, and F. Şen, “Synthesis and Characterization of Nearly Monodisperse Pt Nanoparticles for C1 to C3 Alcohol Oxidation and Dehydrogenation of Dimethylamine-borane (DMAB),” J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol., vol. 16, no. 6, pp. 5944–5950, Jun. 2016, doi: 10.1166/JNN.2016.11683.
22. [22] F. Şen and G. Gökaǧaç, “Improving Catalytic Efficiency in the Methanol Oxidation Reaction by Inserting Ru in Face-Centered Cubic Pt Nanoparticles Prepared by a New Surfactant, tert-Octanethiol,” Energy and Fuels, vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 1858–1864, May 2008, doi: 10.1021/EF700575T.
23. [23] F. H. Nielsen, “Update on human health effects of boron,” J. Trace Elem. Med. Biol., vol. 28, no. 4, pp. 383–387, Oct. 2014, doi: 10.1016/J.JTEMB.2014.06.023.
24. [24] G. D. Mogoşanu, A. Biţă, I. R. Scorei, M. I. Pop, I. R. Dinu, and D. I. Gheonea, “Boron as a Molecular Architect of Host–Microbiome Symbiosis: Implications for Dysbiosis and Aging-Related Pathologies,” Life 2026, Vol. 16, Page 750, vol. 16, no. 5, p. 750, May 2026, doi: 10.3390/LIFE16050750.
25. [25] V. M. Dembitsky, A. O. Terent’ev, S. V. Baranin, and I. R. Scorei, “Boron’s Double Edge—Antibiotics, Toxins, and the Fine Line Between Them,” Mol. 2026, Vol. 31, Page 1021, vol. 31, no. 6, p. 1021, Mar. 2026, doi: 10.3390/MOLECULES31061021.
26. [26] A. Lopalco, A. A. Lopedota, V. Laquintana, N. Denora, and V. J. Stella, “Boric Acid, a Lewis Acid With Unique and Unusual Properties: Formulation Implications,” J. Pharm. Sci., vol. 109, no. 8, pp. 2375–2386, Aug. 2020, doi: 10.1016/J.XPHS.2020.04.015.
27. [27] V. M. Dembitsky, A. O. Terent’ev, M. E. Gursky, and S. V. Baranin, “Fascinating and intriguing biomolecules: The chemistry of boron complexes with carbohydrates, glycolipids, and steroids,” Vietnam J. Chem., vol. 64, no. 2, pp. 159–194, Apr. 2026, doi: 10.1002/VJCH.70066.
28. [28] R. I. Scorei and R. Popa, “Sugar-Borate Esters – Potential Chemical Agents in Prostate Cancer Chemoprevention,” Anticancer. Agents Med. Chem., vol. 13, no. 6, pp. 901–909, Jun. 2013, doi: 10.2174/18715206113139990124.
29. [29] R. I. Scorei and P. Rotaru, “Calcium fructoborate-potential anti-inflammatory agent,” Biol. Trace Elem. Res., vol. 143, no. 3, pp. 1223–1238, Dec. 2011, doi: 10.1007/S12011-011-8972-6/METRICS.
30. [30] M.-V. Racu, I. R. Scorei, and I. Pinzaru, “The role of boron in the functioning of the osteoarticular system,” Mold. Med. J., vol. 64, no. 5, pp. 76–80, Dec. 2021, doi: 10.52418/MOLDOVAN-MED-J.64-5.21.14.
31. [31] M. Rondanelli et al., “Pivotal role of boron supplementation on bone health: A narrative review,” J. Trace Elem. Med. Biol., vol. 62, p. 126577, Dec. 2020, doi: 10.1016/J.JTEMB.2020.126577.
32. [32] E. ; Kilic et al., “Effects of Boron-Containing Compounds on Liposoluble Hormone Functions,” Inorganics 2023, Vol. 11, Page 84, vol. 11, no. 2, p. 84, Feb. 2023, doi: 10.3390/INORGANICS11020084.
33. [33] J. M. Hunter et al., “The Fructoborates: Part of a Family of Naturally Occurring Sugar-Borate Complexes-Biochemistry, Physiology, and Impact on Human Health: a Review,” Biol. Trace Elem. Res., vol. 188, no. 1, pp. 11–25, Mar. 2019, doi: 10.1007/S12011-018-1550-4.
34. [34] W. G. Woods, “Introduction to Boron: History, Sources, Uses, and Chemistry”.
35. [35] L. Pizzorno, “Nothing Boring About Boron,” Integr. Med. A Clin. J., vol. 14, no. 4, p. 35, 2015.
36. [36] “Effect of dietary boron on mineral, estrogen, and testosterone metabolism in postmenopausal women - PubMed.”
37. [37] B. Goz, C. Ganguli, M. Troconis, S. Wyrick, K. S. Ishaq, and J. A. Katzenellenbogen, “Compounds that inhibit chymotrypsin and cell replication,” Biochem. Pharmacol., vol. 35, no. 20, pp. 3587–3591, Oct. 1986, doi: 10.1016/0006-2952(86)90630-1.
38. [38] W. G. Woods, “An introduction to boron: history, sources, uses, and chemistry.,” Environ. Health Perspect., vol. 102 Suppl, no. Suppl 7, pp. 5–11, Nov. 1994, doi: 10.1289/ehp.94102s75.
39. [39] D. B. Carter, D. A. Ross, K. S. Ishaq, G. M. Suarez, and C. B. Chae, “The inhibition of rat liver chromatin protease by congeners of the phenylboronic acids,” Biochim. Biophys. Acta, vol. 484, no. 1, pp. 103–108, Sep. 1977, doi: 10.1016/0005-2744(77)90116-4.
40. [40] F. H. Nielsen and B. J. Stoecker, “Boron and fish oil have different beneficial effects on strength and trabecular microarchitecture of bone,” J. Trace Elem. Med. Biol., vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 195–203, Jul. 2009, doi: 10.1016/J.JTEMB.2009.03.003.
41. [41] R. I. Scorei and R. Popa, “Boron-containing compounds as preventive and chemotherapeutic agents for cancer,” Anticancer. Agents Med. Chem., vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 346–351, Aug. 2010, doi: 10.2174/187152010791162289.
42. [42] N. Öztürk and D. Kavak, “Adsorption of boron from aqueous solutions using fly ash: Batch and column studies,” J. Hazard. Mater., vol. 127, no. 1–3, pp. 81–88, Dec. 2005, doi: 10.1016/J.JHAZMAT.2005.06.026.
43. [43] M. A. Soriano-Ursúa, B. C. Das, and J. G. Trujillo-Ferrara, “Boron-containing compounds: Chemico-biological properties and expanding medicinal potential in prevention, diagnosis and therapy,” Expert Opin. Ther. Pat., vol. 24, no. 5, pp. 485–500, 2014, doi: 10.1517/13543776.2014.881472.
44. [44] H. M. Bolt, N. Başaran, and Y. Duydu, “Human environmental and occupational exposures to boric acid: reconciliation with experimental reproductive toxicity data,” J. Toxicol. Environ. Health. A, vol. 75, no. 8–10, pp. 508–514, Apr. 2012, doi: 10.1080/15287394.2012.675301.
45. [45] M. Korkmaz, “Boron: Environmental Exposure and Human Health,” Encycl. Environ. Heal. Vol. 1-5, vol. 1, pp. V1-442-V1-445, Jan. 2011, doi: 10.1016/B978-0-444-52272-6.00376-7.
46. [46] V. Kumar, O. P. Pandey, and K. Singh, “Structural and optical properties of barium borosilicate glasses,” Phys. B Condens. Matter, vol. 405, no. 1, pp. 204–207, Jan. 2010, doi: 10.1016/J.PHYSB.2009.08.055.
47. [47] F. Thévenot, “Boron carbide—A comprehensive review,” J. Eur. Ceram. Soc., vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 205–225, Jan. 1990, doi: 10.1016/0955-2219(90)90048-K.
48. [48] U. B. Demirci, O. Akdim, J. Andrieux, J. Hannauer, R. Chamoun, and P. Miele, “Sodium borohydride hydrolysis as hydrogen generator: Issues, state of the art and applicability upstream froma fuel cell,” Fuel Cells, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 335–350, 2010, doi: 10.1002/FUCE.200800171.
49. [49] G. V. Johnson and P. E. Fixen, “Testing Soils for Sulfur, Boron, Molybdenum, and Chlorine,” Soil Test. Plant Anal., pp. 265–273, Sep. 2018, doi: 10.2136/SSSABOOKSER3.3ED.C10.
50. [50] J. Ma et al., “A universal descriptor based on pz-orbitals for the catalytic activity of multi-doped carbon bifunctional catalysts for oxygen reduction and evolution,” Nanoscale, vol. 12, no. 37, pp. 19375–19382, Oct. 2020, doi: 10.1039/D0NR03521A.
51. [51] C. Xiong and J. Tang, “First-Principles Investigation of the Stability and CH4 Activation Capability of Defective h-BN,” Catalysts, vol. 16, no. 4, p. 321, Apr. 2026, doi: 10.3390/CATAL16040321/S1.
52. [52] E. E. Mohammed, N. Türkel, U. M. Yigit, A. B. Dalan, and F. Sahin, “Boron Derivatives Inhibit the Proliferation of Breast Cancer Cells and Affect Tumor-Specific T Cell Activity In Vitro by Distinct Mechanisms,” Biol. Trace Elem. Res., vol. 201, no. 12, pp. 5692–5707, 2023, doi: 10.1007/s12011-023-03632-0.
53. [53] A. S.-R. Pang et al., “Nanoparticles as Drug Delivery Systems for the Targeted Treatment of Atherosclerosis,” Molecules, vol. 29, no. 12, p. 2873, 2024, doi: 10.3390/molecules29122873.
54. [54] G. L. Hornyak, H. F. Tibbals, J. Dutta, and J. J. Moore, “Introduction to Nanoscience and Nanotechnology,” 2008, doi: 10.1201/9781420047806.
55. [55] M. Parmaksiz, A. E. Elçin, and Y. M. Elçin, “Biomimetic 3D-Bone Tissue Model,” Methods Mol. Biol., vol. 2273, pp. 239–250, 2021, doi: 10.1007/978-1-0716-1246-0_17.
56. [56] V. P. Torchilin, “Structure and design of polymeric surfactant-based drug delivery systems,” J. Control. Release, vol. 73, no. 2–3, pp. 137–172, 2001, doi: 10.1016/S0168-3659(01)00299-1.
57. [57] S. Basu, P. Biswas, M. Anto, N. Singh, and K. Mukherjee, “Nanomaterial-enabled drug transport systems: a comprehensive exploration of current developments and future avenues in therapeutic delivery.,” 3 Biotech, vol. 14, no. 12, p. 289, 2024, doi: 10.1007/s13205-024-04135-y.
58. [58] K. Ushio et al., “Boric acid transport activity of human aquaporins expressed in Xenopus oocytes,” Physiol. Rep., vol. 10, no. 1, p. e15164, Jan. 2022, doi: 10.14814/PHY2.15164;PAGE:STRING:ARTICLE/CHAPTER.
59. [59] A. D. Hughes and M. R. King, “Nanobiotechnology for the capture and manipulation of circulating tumor cells,” Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Nanomedicine Nanobiotechnology, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 291–309, 2012, doi: 10.1002/WNAN.168.
60. [60] B. C. Das et al., “Boron Chemicals in Drug Discovery and Development: Synthesis and Medicinal Perspective,” Mol. 2022, Vol. 27, Page 2615, vol. 27, no. 9, p. 2615, Apr. 2022, doi: 10.3390/MOLECULES27092615.
61. [61] S. Kansız, M. T. Vurat, M. Parmaksiz, A. E. Elçin, and Y. M. Elçin, “Chitosan/PVA reinforced boron/strontium multi-substituted hydroxyapatite-based biocomposites: Effects of synthesis pH and coating on the physicochemical, mechanical, and in vitro biological properties of scaffolds,” Mater. Today Chem., vol. 35, p. 101865, 2024, doi: 10.1016/J.MTCHEM.2023.101865.
62. [62] W. Kong et al., “Phosphorus decorated MOF-derived microflower-like carbon as a superior anode for lithium-ion batteries,” Carbon N. Y., vol. 215, 2023, doi: 10.1016/j.carbon.2023.118439.
63. [63] J. H. Park, L. Gu, G. Von Maltzahn, E. Ruoslahti, S. N. Bhatia, and M. J. Sailor, “Biodegradable luminescent porous silicon nanoparticles for in vivo applications,” Nat. Mater., vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 331–336, 2009, doi: 10.1038/NMAT2398.
64. [64] M. Frasnelli et al., “Synthesis and characterization of strontium-substituted hydroxyapatite nanoparticles for bone regeneration,” Mater. Sci. Eng. C, vol. 71, pp. 653–662, 2017, doi: 10.1016/J.MSEC.2016.10.047.
65. [65] S. Sheng et al., “Raman spectroscopy of two-dimensional borophene sheets,” ACS Nano, vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 4133–4139, 2019, doi: 10.1021/ACSNANO.8B08909.
66. [66] A. Soriano-Ursúa et al., “Boron in Diet and Medicine: Mechanisms of Delivery and Detection,” Pharm. 2026, Vol. 19, Page 81, vol. 19, no. 1, p. 81, Dec. 2025, doi: 10.3390/PH19010081.
67. [67] A. Azapagic, “Life cycle assessment and its application to process selection, design and optimisation,” Chem. Eng. J., vol. 73, no. 1, pp. 1–21, 1999, doi: 10.1016/S1385-8947(99)00042-X.
68. [68] A. D. Hughes, M. R. K.-: Nanomedicine, Nanobiotechnology, and undefined 2012, “Nanobiotechnology for the capture and manipulation of circulating tumor cells,” Wiley Online Libr..
69. [69] E. Melenikioti, E. Pavlidou, A. Dakanalis, C. Giaginis, and S. K. Papadopoulou, “Dietary Lithium, Silicon, and Boron: An Updated Critical Review of Their Roles in Metabolic Regulation, Neurobiology, Bone Health, and the Gut Microbiome,” Nutrients, vol. 18, no. 3. Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute, p. 386, Jan. 2026. doi: 10.3390/nu18030386.
70. [70] S. H. Farjana, N. Huda, M. A. P. Mahmud, and R. Saidur, “A review on the impact of mining and mineral processing industries through life cycle assessment,” J. Clean. Prod., vol. 231, pp. 1200–1217, 2019, doi: 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2019.05.264.
71. [71] S. Akbar, M. N. Qureshi, and S. A. Khan, “Fabrication of chitosan supported copper nano catalyst for the hydrogen gas production through methanolysis and hydrolysis of NaBH4,” Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, vol. 101, pp. 313–322, 2025, doi: 10.1016/J.IJHYDENE.2024.12.462.
72. [72] S. Sumitani and Y. Nagasaki, “Boron neutron capture therapy assisted by boron-conjugated nanoparticles,” Polym. J., vol. 44, no. 6, pp. 522–530, 2012, doi: 10.1038/pj.2012.30.
73. [73] E. Ruiz-Hitzky et al., “Nanotechnology Responses to COVID-19,” Adv. Healthc. Mater., vol. 9, no. 19, 2020, doi: 10.1002/ADHM.202000979.
74. [74] G. Ciofani, V. Raffa, A. Menciassi, and A. Cuschieri, “Folate functionalized boron nitride nanotubes and their selective uptake by glioblastoma multiforme cells: Implications for their use as boron carriers in clinical boron neutron capture therapy,” Nanoscale Res. Lett., vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 113–121, 2009, doi: 10.1007/S11671-008-9210-9.
75. [75] D. Peer, J. M. Karp, S. Hong, O. C. Farokhzad, R. Margalit, and R. Langer, “Nanocarriers as an emerging platform for cancer therapy,” Nat. Nanotechnol., vol. 2, no. 12, pp. 751–760, 2007, doi: 10.1038/nnano.2007.387.
76. [76] U. C. GUPTA, “SOME FACTORS AFFECTING THE DETERMINATION OF HOT-WATER-SOLUBLE BORON FROM PODZOL SOILS USING AZOMETHINE-H,” Can. J. Soil Sci., vol. 59, no. 3, pp. 241–247, 1979, doi: 10.4141/CJSS79-027.
77. [77] A. K. Demir, A. E. Elçin, and Y. M. Elçin, “Strontium-modified chitosan/montmorillonite composites as bone tissue engineering scaffold,” Mater. Sci. Eng. C, vol. 89, pp. 8–14, 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.msec.2018.03.021.
78. [78] P. D. Howe, “A review of Boron effects in the environment,” Biol. Trace Elem. Res., vol. 66, no. 1–3, pp. 153–166, 1998, doi: 10.1007/BF02783135.
79. [79] L. Schoderboeck, S. Mühlegger, A. Losert, C. Gausterer, and R. Hornek, “Effects assessment: Boron compounds in the aquatic environment,” Chemosphere, vol. 82, no. 3, pp. 483–487, 2011, doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2010.10.031.
80. [80] C. D. Good and D. M. Ritter, “Alkenylboranes. II. Improved Preparative Methods and New Observations on Methylvinylboranes,” J. Am. Chem. Soc., vol. 84, no. 7, pp. 1162–1166, 1962, doi: 10.1021/JA00866A021.
81. [81] S. H. Um et al., “Regulation of cell locomotion by nanosecond-laser-induced hydroxyapatite patterning,” Bioact. Mater., vol. 6, no. 10, pp. 3608–3619, 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2021.03.025.
82. [82] N. P. S. Chauhan, N. S. Hosmane, and M. Mozafari, “Boron-based polymers: opportunities and challenges,” Mater. Today Chem., vol. 14, p. 100184, 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.mtchem.2019.08.003.
83. [83] B. Kasprzyk-Hordern, “Chemistry of alumina, reactions in aqueous solution and its application in water treatment,” Adv. Colloid Interface Sci., vol. 110, no. 1–2, pp. 19–48, 2004, doi: 10.1016/j.cis.2004.02.002.
84. [84] P. Ranjan, J. M. Lee, P. Kumar, and A. Vinu, “Borophene: New Sensation in Flatland,” Adv. Mater., vol. 32, no. 34, 2020, doi: 10.1002/ADMA.202000531.
85. [85] H. Bi, X. He, H. Zhang, H. Li, N. Xiao, and J. Qiu, “N, P co-doped hierarchical porous carbon from rapeseed cake with enhanced supercapacitance,” Renew. Energy, vol. 170, pp. 188–196, 2021, doi: 10.1016/J.RENENE.2021.01.099.
86. [86] N. Lolak, E. Kuyuldar, H. Burhan, H. Goksu, S. Akocak, and F. Sen, “Composites of Palladium-Nickel Alloy Nanoparticles and Graphene Oxide for the Knoevenagel Condensation of Aldehydes with Malononitrile,” ACS Omega, vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 6848–6853, Apr. 2019, doi: 10.1021/ACSOMEGA.9B00485/SUPPL_FILE/AO9B00485_SI_001.PDF.
87. [87] F. Ali, N. S. Hosmane, and Y. Zhu, “Boron Chemistry for Medical Applications,” Mol. 2020, Vol. 25, Page 828, vol. 25, no. 4, p. 828, 2020, doi: 10.3390/MOLECULES25040828.
88. [88] T. Schaffran, J. Li, G. Karlsson, K. Edwards, M. Winterhalter, and D. Gabel, “Interaction of N,N,N-trialkylammonioundecahydro-closo-dodecaborates with dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine liposomes,” Chem. Phys. Lipids, vol. 163, no. 1, pp. 64–73, 2010, doi: 10.1016/J.CHEMPHYSLIP.2009.09.004.
89. [89] J. Li et al., “A Metabolically Stable Boron-Derived Tyrosine Serves as a Theranostic Agent for Positron Emission Tomography Guided Boron Neutron Capture Therapy,” Bioconjug. Chem., vol. 30, no. 11, pp. 2870–2878, 2019, doi: 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.9b00578.
90. [90] D. Kuru, “Amorf borun elektrokimyasal eksfoliasyonuyla bor nanotabakalarının sentezi ve karakterizasyonu,” Bor Derg., vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 111–119, 2024, doi: 10.30728/BORON.1483030.
91. [91] D. S. Matteson, “α-amido boronic acids: A synthetic challenge and their properties as serine protease inhibitors,” Med. Res. Rev., vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 233–246, Mar. 2008, doi: 10.1002/MED.20105;PAGE:STRING:ARTICLE/CHAPTER.
92. [92] G. F. Whyte, R. Vilar, and R. Woscholski, “Molecular recognition with boronic acids—applications in chemical biology,” J. Chem. Biol. 2013 64, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 161–174, Jun. 2013, doi: 10.1007/S12154-013-0099-0.
93. [93] S. J. Baker, J. W. Tomsho, and S. J. Benkovic, “Boron-containing inhibitors of synthetases,” Chem. Soc. Rev., vol. 40, no. 8, pp. 4279–4285, Jul. 2011, doi: 10.1039/C0CS00131G.
94. [94] G. Rengasamy and S. Mahalingam, “Fabrication and characterization of chitosan/Ag@hydroxyapatite nanocomposite films for osteoregeneration: Insights into mechanical properties, biological performance, and drug release,” Colloids Surfaces A Physicochem. Eng. Asp., vol. 717, 2025, doi: 10.1016/J.COLSURFA.2025.136790.
95. [95] B. Wolf, “Improvements in the azomethine-h method for the determination of boron,” Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal., vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 39–44, 1974, doi: 10.1080/00103627409366478.
96. [96] F. Issa, M. Kassiou, and L. M. Rendina, “Boron in drug discovery: Carboranes as unique pharmacophores in biologically active compounds,” Chem. Rev., vol. 111, no. 9, pp. 5701–5722, 2011, doi: 10.1021/CR2000866.
97. [97] A. O. Nunes et al., “Life cycle assessment of a steam thermolysis process to recover carbon fibers from carbon fiber-reinforced polymer waste,” Int. J. Life Cycle Assess., vol. 23, no. 9, pp. 1825–1838, 2018, doi: 10.1007/S11367-017-1416-6.
98. [98] J. R. Antonio, C. R. Antônio, I. L. S. Cardeal, J. M. A. Ballavenuto, and J. R. Oliveira, “Nanotechnology in Dermatology,” An. Bras. Dermatol., vol. 89, no. 1, pp. 126–136, 2014, doi: 10.1590/ABD1806-4841.20142228.
99. [99] Q. A. Pankhurst, J. Connolly, S. K. Jones, and J. Dobson, “Applications of magnetic nanoparticles in biomedicine,” J. Phys. D. Appl. Phys., vol. 36, no. 13, pp. R167–R181, 2003, doi: 10.1088/0022-3727/36/13/201.
100. [100] G. Arabacı, S. Ayan, F. Gündüz, Y. İ. D.-A.-K. Dergisi, and undefined 2023, “Elektroeğrilmiş Nanofiber Yapıların Kanser Tedavisinde Kullanımı: Mevcut İlerlemeler ve Gelecek Persfektifler,” dergipark.org.tr.
101. [101] D. W. Killilea and A. N. Killilea, “Mineral requirements for mitochondrial function: A connection to redox balance and cellular differentiation,” Free Radic. Biol. Med., vol. 182, pp. 182–191, Mar. 2022, doi: 10.1016/J.FREERADBIOMED.2022.02.022.
102. [102] R. Kuru-Yaşar and A. Yarat, “The Role of Boron in the Diet and as a Dietary Supplement,” pp. 1–28, 2026, doi: 10.1007/164_2026_811.
103. [103] N. Başaran et al., “Evaluation of oxidative stress and immune parameters of boron exposed males and females,” Food Chem. Toxicol., vol. 142, p. 111488, Aug. 2020, doi: 10.1016/J.FCT.2020.111488.
104. [104] A. Mott et al., “Boron in geothermal energy: Sources, environmental impacts, and management in geothermal fluid,” Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., vol. 167, p. 112825, 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2022.112825.
105. [105] H. Yin et al., “Fabrication and characterization of strontium-doped borate-based bioactive glass scaffolds for bone tissue engineering,” J. Alloys Compd., vol. 743, pp. 564–569, 2018, doi: 10.1016/J.JALLCOM.2018.01.099.
106. [106] U. C. Gupta, “A Modified Procedure for the Determination of Total Boron from Soil Fused with Sodium Carbonate,” Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., vol. 30, no. 5, pp. 655–656, 1966, doi: 10.2136/SSSAJ1966.03615995003000050034X.
107. [107] Y. Dong et al., “Functionalized chitosan as a novel support for stabilizing palladium in Suzuki reactions,” Carbohydr. Polym., vol. 260, 2021, doi: 10.1016/J.CARBPOL.2021.117815.
108. [108] F. Pinna, “Supported metal catalysts preparation,” Catal. Today, vol. 41, no. 1–3, pp. 129–137, 1998, doi: 10.1016/S0920-5861(98)00043-1.
109. [109] W. Walther and U. Stein, “Viral vectors for gene transfer: A review of their use in the treatment of human diseases,” Drugs, vol. 60, no. 2, pp. 249–271, 2000, doi: 10.2165/00003495-200060020-00002.
110. [110] S. Biyik, F. Arslan, and M. Aydin, “Arc-Erosion Behavior of Boric Oxide-Reinforced Silver-Based Electrical Contact Materials Produced by Mechanical Alloying,” J. Electron. Mater., vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 457–466, 2015, doi: 10.1007/S11664-014-3399-4.
111. [111] E. Odabaş and E. Akarsu, “Improving interface interactions in PLA/HAP composites with hydroxyapatite surface modification,” Compos. Interfaces, vol. 30, no. 11, pp. 1305–1319, 2023, doi: 10.1080/09276440.2023.2210884.
112. [112] C.-Y. Wu et al., “Development of theranostic active-targeting boron-containing gold nanoparticles for boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT),” Colloids Surfaces B Biointerfaces, vol. 183, p. 110387, 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2019.110387.
113. [113] T. P. Onak, H. Landesman, R. E. Williams, and I. Shapiro, “The B11 nuclear magnetic resonance chemical shifts and spin coupling values for various compounds,” J. Phys. Chem., vol. 63, no. 9, pp. 1533–1535, 1959, doi: 10.1021/J150579A601.
114. [114] O. Basal, O. Ozmen, and A. M. Deliormanlı, “Bone Healing in Rat Segmental Femur Defects with Graphene-PCL-Coated Borate-Based Bioactive Glass Scaffolds,” Polymers (Basel)., vol. 14, no. 18, 2022, doi: 10.3390/POLYM14183898.
115. [115] L. A. Haro Durand et al., “In vitro endothelial cell response to ionic dissolution products from boron-doped bioactive glass in the SiO2–CaO–P2O5–Na2O system,” J. Mater. Chem. B, vol. 2, no. 43, pp. 7620–7630, Oct. 2014, doi: 10.1039/C4TB01043D.
116. [116] I. Routray and S. Ali, “Boron Induces Lymphocyte Proliferation and Modulates the Priming Effects of Lipopolysaccharide on Macrophages,” PLoS One, vol. 11, no. 3, p. e0150607, Mar. 2016, doi: 10.1371/JOURNAL.PONE.0150607.
117. [117] B. Yılmaz, B. Dalbayrak, M. Kucukali, P. U. Onganer, and E. D. Arısan, “Boron-Enhanced Mitochondrial Repair: DeepA-I Tissue Regeneration,” Scientifica (Cairo)., vol. 2025, no. 1, p. 5343930, Jan. 2025, doi: 10.1155/SCI5/5343930.
118. [118] B. Keyif and C. Hacioglu, “Boric Acid Suppresses Cell Survival by Triggering Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress-Induced Autophagy in Cervical Cancers,” J. Cell. Mol. Med., vol. 29, no. 14, p. e70740, Jul. 2025, doi: 10.1111/JCMM.70740;WGROUP:STRING:PUBLICATION.
119. [119] B. Yedekçi, A. Tezcaner, A. Z. Alshemary, B. Yılmaz, T. Demir, and Z. Evis, “Synthesis and sintering of B, Sr, Mg multi-doped hydroxyapatites: Structural, mechanical and biological characterization,” J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater., vol. 115, 2021, doi: 10.1016/J.JMBBM.2020.104230.
120. [120] S. S. Hakki et al., “Boron enhances strength and alters mineral composition of bone in rabbits fed a high energy diet,” J. Trace Elem. Med. Biol., vol. 27, no. 2, pp. 148–153, 2013, doi: 10.1016/j.jtemb.2012.07.001.
121. [121] K. L. b Luis Bolaños a,*, I. B. A, and Dale Blevins b, “why boron,” Why boron?, 2004.
122. [122] M. Sari, P. Hening, Chotimah, I. D. Ana, and Y. Yusuf, “Bioceramic hydroxyapatite-based scaffold with a porous structure using honeycomb as a natural polymeric Porogen for bone tissue engineering,” Biomater. Res., vol. 25, no. 1, 2021, doi: 10.1186/S40824-021-00203-Z.
123. [123] L. Li et al., “On-Demand Biodegradable Boron Nitride Nanoparticles for Treating Triple Negative Breast Cancer with Boron Neutron Capture Therapy,” ACS Nano, vol. 13, no. 12, pp. 13843–13852, 2019, doi: 10.1021/ACSNANO.9B04303.
124. [124] P. Lotti et al., “Thermal stability and high-temperature behavior of the natural borate colemanite: An aggregate in radiation-shielding concretes,” Constr. Build. Mater., vol. 203, pp. 679–686, 2019, doi: 10.1016/J.CONBUILDMAT.2019.01.123.
125. [125] C. (Allen) Zheng, “Examining the Benefits of Using Boron Compounds in Lithium Batteries: A Comprehensive Review of Literature,” Batteries, vol. 8, no. 10, p. 187, 2022, doi: 10.3390/batteries8100187.
126. [126] A. E. Pazarçeviren, A. Tezcaner, D. Keskin, S. T. Kolukısa, S. Sürdem, and Z. Evis, “Boron-doped Biphasic Hydroxyapatite/β-Tricalcium Phosphate for Bone Tissue Engineering,” Biol. Trace Elem. Res., vol. 199, no. 3, pp. 968–980, 2021, doi: 10.1007/S12011-020-02230-8.
127. [127] A. B. Mehta, N. J. Nadkarni, S. P. Patil, K. V. Godse, M. Gautam, and S. Agarwal, “Topical corticosteroids in dermatology,” Indian J. Dermatol. Venereol. Leprol., vol. 82, no. 4, pp. 371–378, 2016, doi: 10.4103/0378-6323.178903.
128. [128] A. Slominski, D. J. Tobin, S. Shibahara, and J. Wortsman, “Melanin pigmentation in mammalian skin and its hormonal regulation,” Physiol. Rev., vol. 84, no. 4, pp. 1155–1228, 2004, doi: 10.1152/physrev.00044.2003.
129. [129] G. L. Hammond, “Potential functions of plasma steroid-binding proteins,” Trends Endocrinol. Metab., vol. 6, no. 9–10, pp. 298–304, 1995, doi: 10.1016/1043-2760(95)00162-X.
130. [130] G. L. Hammond and W. P. Bocchinfuso, “Sex hormone-binding globulin/androgen-binding protein: Steroid-binding and dimerization domains,” J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol., vol. 53, no. 1–6, pp. 543–552, 1995, doi: 10.1016/0960-0760(95)00110-L.
131. [131] G. V. Avvakumov, I. Grishkovskaya, Y. A. Muller, and G. L. Hammond, “Resolution of the Human Sex Hormone-binding Globulin Dimer Interface and Evidence for Two Steroid-binding Sites per Homodimer,” J. Biol. Chem., vol. 276, no. 37, pp. 34453–34457, Sep. 2001, doi: 10.1074/jbc.M106274200.
132. [132] J. Hiratsuka et al., “Boron neutron capture therapy for vulvar melanoma and genital extramammary Paget’s disease with curative responses,” Cancer Commun., vol. 38, no. 1, 2018, doi: 10.1186/S40880-018-0297-9.
133. [133] D. Sanyal et al., “Integrated structural analysis of sex hormone binding globulin reveals allosteric modulation by distant mutations,” Int. J. Biol. Macromol., vol. 315, p. 144050, Jun. 2025, doi: 10.1016/J.IJBIOMAC.2025.144050.
134. [134] G. V. Avvakumov, A. Cherkasov, Y. A. Muller, and G. L. Hammond, “Structural analyses of sex hormone-binding globulin reveal novel ligands and function,” Mol. Cell. Endocrinol., vol. 316, no. 1, pp. 13–23, Mar. 2010, doi: 10.1016/j.mce.2009.09.005.
135. [135] M. R. Naghii, M. Mofid, A. R. Asgari, M. Hedayati, and M.-S. Daneshpour, “Comparative effects of daily and weekly boron supplementation on plasma steroid hormones and proinflammatory cytokines,” J. Trace Elem. Med. Biol., vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 54–58, Jan. 2011, doi: 10.1016/j.jtemb.2010.10.001.
136. [136] C. Hacioglu, F. Kar, F. Davran, and C. Tuncer, “Borax regulates iron chaperone- and autophagy-mediated ferroptosis pathway in glioblastoma cells,” Environ. Toxicol., vol. 38, no. 7, pp. 1690–1701, Jul. 2023, doi: 10.1002/TOX.23797;WGROUP:STRING:PUBLICATION.
137. [137] C. Gianpiero et al., “Boron-containing delocalised lipophilic cations for the selective targeting of cancer cells,” Medchemcomm, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 67–72, Jan. 2017, doi: 10.1039/C6MD00383D.
138. [138] T. Nomoto et al., “Poly(vinyl alcohol) boosting therapeutic potential of p-boronophenylalanine in neutron capture therapy by modulating metabolism,” Sci. Adv., vol. 6, no. 4, Jan. 2020, doi: 10.1126/SCIADV.AAZ1722.
139. [139] S. Ivankovic, R. Stojkovic, M. Maksimovic, B. Galic, and M. Milos, “Impact of calcium ion on cytotoxic effect of the boroxine derivative, K2[B3O3F4OH],” J. Enzyme Inhib. Med. Chem., vol. 31, no. S3, pp. 70–74, Nov. 2016, doi: 10.1080/14756366.2016.1204611.
140. [140] J. Chen et al., “Remarkable boron delivery of iRGD-modified polymeric nanoparticles for boron neutron capture therapy,” Int. J. Nanomedicine, vol. 14, pp. 8161–8177, 2019, doi: 10.2147/IJN.S214224.
141. [141] W. Li et al., “Targeted delivery of Auristatin PE to Hep G2 cells using folate - conjugated boron nitride nanotubes,” Mater. Sci. Eng. C, vol. 109, 2020, doi: 10.1016/J.MSEC.2019.110509.
142. [142] A. Sirelkhatim et al., “Review on zinc oxide nanoparticles: Antibacterial activity and toxicity mechanism,” Nano-Micro Lett., vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 219–242, 2015, doi: 10.1007/S40820-015-0040-X.
143. [143] L. Bücker-Neto, A. L. S. Paiva, R. D. Machado, R. A. Arenhart, and M. Margis-Pinheiro, “Interactions between plant hormones and heavy metals responses,” Genet. Mol. Biol., vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 373–386, 2017, doi: 10.1590/1678-4685-GMB-2016-0087.
144. [144] C. Yin et al., “Transcription factor 7-like 2 promotes osteogenic differentiation and boron-induced bone repair via lipocalin 2,” Mater. Sci. Eng. C, vol. 110, 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.msec.2020.110671.
145. [145] M. Gizer et al., “The Effect of Boron-Containing Nano-Hydroxyapatite on Bone Cells,” Biol. Trace Elem. Res., vol. 193, no. 2, pp. 364–376, 2020, doi: 10.1007/S12011-019-01710-W.
146. [146] X. Zhao et al., “cGMP signalling transduction pathways cross talk with first and second messengers in plants,” Hortic. Plant J., Apr. 2026, doi: 10.1016/J.HPJ.2025.11.010.
147. [147] A. Aimaiti, A. Maimaitiyiming, X. Boyong, K. Aji, C. Li, and L. Cui, “Low-dose strontium stimulates osteogenesis but high-dose doses cause apoptosis in human adipose-derived stem cells via regulation of the ERK1/2 signaling pathway,” Stem Cell Res. Ther., vol. 8, no. 1, 2017, doi: 10.1186/S13287-017-0726-8.
148. [148] S. H. Francis, J. L. Busch, and J. D. Corbin, “cGMP-dependent protein kinases and cGMP phosphodiesterases in nitric oxide and cGMP action,” Pharmacol. Rev., vol. 62, no. 3, pp. 525–563, Sep. 2010, doi: 10.1124/pr.110.002907.
149. [149] A. Voxeur and S. C. Fry, “Glycosylinositol phosphorylceramides from Rosa cell cultures are boron-bridged in the plasma membrane and form complexes with rhamnogalacturonan II,” Plant J., vol. 79, no. 1, pp. 139–149, 2014, doi: 10.1111/TPJ.12547.
150. [150] J. Li, H. Jia, and J. Wang, “cGMP and ethylene are involved in maintaining ion homeostasis under salt stress in Arabidopsis roots,” Plant Cell Rep., vol. 33, no. 3, pp. 447–459, Mar. 2014, doi: 10.1007/s00299-013-1545-8.
151. [151] J. Liu et al., “TF-PROTACs Enable Targeted Degradation of Transcription Factors,” J. Am. Chem. Soc., vol. 143, no. 23, pp. 8902–8910, Jun. 2021, doi: 10.1021/JACS.1C03852.
152. [152] S. Qin et al., “Boron inhibits cadmium uptake in wheat (Triticum aestivum) by regulating gene expression,” Plant Sci., vol. 297, no. APR2016, Aug. 2020, doi: 10.1016/J.PLANTSCI.2020.110522.
153. [153] F. Zhang et al., “Few-layer and large flake size borophene: Preparation with solvothermal-assisted liquid phase exfoliation,” RSC Adv., vol. 10, no. 46, pp. 27532–27537, 2020, doi: 10.1039/D0RA03492D.
154. [154] “Bor Dergisi » Makale » Thermal decomposition behaviors, kinetics and thermodynamics of colemanite.”
155. [155] R. Najdi et al., “A Wnt kinase network alters nuclear localization of TCF-1 in colon cancer,” Oncogene, vol. 28, no. 47, pp. 4133–4146, Nov. 2009, doi: 10.1038/onc.2009.271.
156. [156] N. Sedighi-Pirsaraei, A. Tamimi, F. Sadeghi Khamaneh, S. Dadras-Jeddi, and N. Javaheri, “Boron in wound healing: a comprehensive investigation of its diverse mechanisms,” Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., vol. 12, p. 1475584, Oct. 2024, doi: 10.3389/FBIOE.2024.1475584/FULL.
157. [157] M. F. Hawthorne, “The Role of Chemistry in the Development of Boron Neutron Capture Therapy of Cancer,” Angew. Chemie Int. Ed. English, vol. 32, no. 7, pp. 950–984, 1993, doi: 10.1002/ANIE.199309501.
158. [158] C. Wu et al., “Proliferation, differentiation and gene expression of osteoblasts in boron-containing associated with dexamethasone deliver from mesoporous bioactive glass scaffolds,” Biomaterials, vol. 32, no. 29, pp. 7068–7078, Oct. 2011, doi: 10.1016/J.BIOMATERIALS.2011.06.009.
159. [159] A. Koç, G. Finkenzeller, A. E. Elçin, G. B. Stark, and Y. M. Elçin, “Evaluation of adenoviral vascular endothelial growth factor-activated chitosan/hydroxyapatite scaffold for engineering vascularized bone tissue using human osteoblasts: In vitro and in vivo studies,” J. Biomater. Appl., vol. 29, no. 5, pp. 748–760, 2014, doi: 10.1177/0885328214544769.
160. [160] S. Singhal, S. Nie, and M. D. Wang, “Nanotechnology applications in surgical oncology,” Annu. Rev. Med., vol. 61, pp. 359–373, 2010, doi: 10.1146/ANNUREV.MED.60.052907.094936.
161. [161] J. Weiske, K. F. Albring, and O. Huber, “The tumor suppressor Fhit acts as a repressor of β-catenin transcriptional activity,” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., vol. 104, no. 51, pp. 20344–20349, Dec. 2007, doi: 10.1073/pnas.0703664105.
162. [162] I. Carrera, F. Janody, N. Leeds, F. Duveau, and J. E. Treisman, “Pygopus activates Wingless target gene transcription through the mediator complex subunits Med12 and Med13,” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., vol. 105, no. 18, pp. 6644–6649, May 2008, doi: 10.1073/pnas.0709749105.
163. [163] “Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi » Gönderi » Kitosan/Poli(vinil alkol)/TiO2/Bor Nanokompozitlerinin Fotokatalitik Aktivitesinin Araştırılması.”
164. [164] T. A. Diehn et al., “Boron demanding tissues of Brassica napus express specific sets of functional Nodulin26-like Intrinsic Proteins and BOR1 transporters,” Plant J., vol. 100, no. 1, pp. 68–82, Oct. 2019, doi: 10.1111/tpj.14428.
165. [165] N. A. Bakken and C. D. Hunt, “Dietary Boron Decreases Peak Pancreatic In Situ Insulin Release in Chicks and Plasma Insulin Concentrations in Rats Regardless of Vitamin D or Magnesium Status,” J. Nutr., vol. 133, no. 11, pp. 3577–3583, 2003, doi: 10.1093/jn/133.11.3577.
166. [166] C. Shuai, W. Yang, P. Feng, S. Peng, and H. Pan, “Accelerated degradation of HAP/PLLA bone scaffold by PGA blending facilitates bioactivity and osteoconductivity,” Bioact. Mater., vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 490–502, 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2020.09.001.
167. [167] M. Keshavarz and P. Alizadeh, “On the role of alginate coating on the mechanical and biological properties of 58S bioactive glass scaffolds,” Int. J. Biol. Macromol., vol. 167, pp. 947–961, 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.11.051.
168. [168] A. Sharma, B. Shahzad, A. Rehman, R. Bhardwaj, M. Landi, and B. Zheng, “Response of phenylpropanoid pathway and the role of polyphenols in plants under abiotic stress,” Molecules, vol. 24, no. 13, 2019, doi: 10.3390/MOLECULES24132452.
169. [169] Çakır Selcen, “Boron ve Bor Toksisitesinin KullanımlarıBoron ve Bor Toksisitesinin Kullanımları,” Bor’un Kullan. Alanları ve Bor Toksisitesi, vol. 2, pp. 1–7, Sep. 2022.
170. [170] N. V. C. Ralston and C. D. Hunt, “Diadenosine phosphates and S-adenosylmethionine: Novel boron binding biomolecules detected by capillary electrophoresis,” Biochim. Biophys. Acta - Gen. Subj., vol. 1527, no. 1–2, pp. 20–30, Jul. 2001, doi: 10.1016/S0304-4165(01)00130-1.
171. [171] Z. Yinghuai, X. Lin, H. Xie, J. Li, N. S. Hosmane, and Y. Zhang, “The Current Status and Perspectives of Delivery Strategy for Boronbased Drugs,” Curr. Med. Chem., vol. 26, no. 26, pp. 5019–5035, 2018, doi: 10.2174/0929867325666180904105212.
172. [172] J. M. Hunter et al., “The Fructoborates: Part of a Family of Naturally Occurring Sugar–Borate Complexes—Biochemistry, Physiology, and Impact on Human Health: a Review,” Biol. Trace Elem. Res., vol. 188, no. 1, pp. 11–25, Mar. 2019, doi: 10.1007/s12011-018-1550-4.
173. [173] R. Keren and F. T. Bingham, “Boron in Water, Soils, and Plants,” pp. 229–276, 1958, doi: 10.1007/978-1-4612-5046-3_7.
174. [174] M. P. Silva, L. Saraiva, M. Pinto, and M. E. Sousa, “Boronic Acids and Their Derivatives in Medicinal Chemistry: Synthesis and Biological Applications,” Molecules, vol. 25, no. 18, Sep. 2020, doi: 10.3390/MOLECULES25184323.
175. [175] N. BAŞARAN et al., “Evaluation of the DNA damage in lymphocytes, sperm and buccal cells of workers under environmental and occupational boron exposure conditions,” Mutat. Res. - Genet. Toxicol. Environ. Mutagen., vol. 843, pp. 33–39, Jul. 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.mrgentox.2018.12.013.
176. [176] Y.-T. Wang, “Functional assessment of transplanted kidneys with magnetic resonance imaging,” World J. Radiol., vol. 7, no. 10, p. 343, 2015, doi: 10.4329/WJR.V7.I10.343.
177. [177] S. P. Lall and S. J. Kaushik, “Nutrition and metabolism of minerals in fish,” Animals, vol. 11, no. 9, Sep. 2021, doi: 10.3390/ANI11092711.
178. [178] L. Bolaños, K. Lukaszewski, I. Bonilla, and D. Blevins, “Why boron?,” Plant Physiol. Biochem., vol. 42, no. 11, pp. 907–912, Dec. 2004, doi: 10.1016/J.PLAPHY.2004.11.002.
179. [179] B. Dunkerly-Eyring and D. A. Kass, “Myocardial Phosphodiesterases and Their Role in cGMP Regulation,” J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol., vol. 75, no. 6, pp. 483–493, Jun. 2020, doi: 10.1097/fjc.0000000000000773.
180. [180] W. H. Organization, I. A. E. Agency, and F. and A. O. of the U. Nations, “Trace elements in human nutrition and health,” pp. 1–5, Dec. 1996, Accessed: Aug. 29, 2026. [Online]. Available: https://iris.who.int/handle/10665/37931
181. [181] “Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc,” Diet. Ref. Intakes Vitam. A, Vitam. K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, Zinc, Jun. 2001, doi: 10.17226/10026.
182. [182] “Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Dietetic products, nutrition and allergies [NDA] related to the Tolerable Upper Intake Level of Sodium,” EFSA J., vol. 3, no. 6, p. 209, Jun. 2005, doi: 10.2903/j.efsa.2005.209.
183. [183] R. J. Grams et al., “The Rise of Boron-Containing Compounds: Advancements in Synthesis, Medicinal Chemistry, and Emerging Pharmacology,” Chem. Rev., vol. 124, no. 5, pp. 2441–2511, Mar. 2024, doi: 10.1021/ACS.CHEMREV.3C00663.
184. [184] M. Scholz, A. L. Blobaum, L. J. Marnett, and E. Hey-Hawkins, “Synthesis and evaluation of carbaborane derivatives of indomethacin as cyclooxygenase inhibitors,” Bioorganic Med. Chem., vol. 19, no. 10, pp. 3242–3248, 2011, doi: 10.1016/J.BMC.2011.03.054.
185. [185] E. B. Simsek, “Investigation of Photocatalytic Activity of Chitosan/Poly(vinyl alcohol)/TiO2/Boron Nanocomposites,” Süleyman Demirel Univ. J. Nat. Appl. Sci., vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 299–305, 2017, doi: 10.19113/SDUFBED.57694.
186. [186] J. J. Camacho-cristóbal, J. Rexach, and A. González-Fontes, “Boron in plants: deficiency and toxicity,” J. Integr. Plant Biol., vol. 50, no. 10, pp. 1247–1255, 2008, doi: 10.1111/J.1744-7909.2008.00742.X.
187. [187] R. Tiwari, K. Mahasenan, R. Pavlovicz, C. Li, and W. Tjarks, “Carborane clusters in computational drug design: A comparative docking evaluation using AutoDock, FlexX, Glide, and Surflex,” J. Chem. Inf. Model., vol. 49, no. 6, pp. 1581–1589, 2009, doi: 10.1021/CI900031Y.
188. [188] K. Ishiwata, “4-Borono-2- 18 F-fluoro-l-phenylalanine PET for boron neutron capture therapy-oriented diagnosis: overview of a quarter century of research,” Ann. Nucl. Med., vol. 33, no. 4, pp. 223–236, 2019, doi: 10.1007/S12149-019-01347-8.
189. [189] M. Lei et al., “Design, synthesis, in vitro and in vivo evaluation, and structure-activity relationship (SAR) discussion of novel dipeptidyl boronic acid proteasome inhibitors as orally available anti-cancer agents for the treatment of multiple myeloma and mechanism stu…,” Bioorganic Med. Chem., vol. 26, no. 14, pp. 3975–3981, Aug. 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.bmc.2018.06.020.
190. [190] J. E. Kipp, “The role of solid nanoparticle technology in the parenteral delivery of poorly water-soluble drugs,” Int. J. Pharm., vol. 284, no. 1–2, pp. 109–122, 2004, doi: 10.1016/J.IJPHARM.2004.07.019.
191. [191] P. A. del Rizzo and R. C. Trievel, “Substrate and product specificities of SET domain methyltransferases,” Epigenetics, vol. 6, no. 9, pp. 1059–1067, 2011, doi: 10.4161/epi.6.9.16069.