An Analysis of the Relationship between Primary School Fourth-Grade Students’ Writing Performance, and Student and Class Variables

Year 2023, Volume: 10 Issue: 1, 104 - 119, 31.03.2023

Bengisu Kaya Özgül , Seyit Ateş

https://doi.org/10.33200/ijcer.1195617

Abstract

The aim of this study is to examine the writing performance of the primary school fourth-grade students in relation to the student-level variables (writing, reading comprehension, self-regulation-based writing, writing motivation, and writing anxiety) and classroom-level (teacher) variables (knowledge of text-writing instruction and text-writing instruction self-efficacy beliefs). The data were collected from Zonguldak, Turkey in 2019-2020 academic year. Correlational research method was used in the study, which consisted of 734 fourth-grade students at primary school and 31 classroom teachers. The data collection tools included the Story Text and Informative Text Assessment Analytical Rubric, Writing Achievement Test, Reading Comprehension Test, Self-Regulation-Based Writing Scale, Writing Motivation Scale, Writing Anxiety Scale, and Text-Writing Instruction Form for Classroom Teachers, and Text-Writing Instruction Self-Efficacy Beliefs Scale. A two-level Hierarchical Linear Modelling (HLM) analysis was performed on the data. The results showed that students’ writing knowledge, reading comprehension level and self-regulation-based writing skills play a significant role on their writing performance. The student-level variables examined in this study account for the text-writing performance of students by 24%. The study presents the results based on the findings and recommendations based on the results.

Keywords

Writing skill, Primary school fourth-grade students, Classroom teachers, Hierarchical linear modelling

References

• Applegate, A. J., & Applegate, M. D. (2004). The Peter effect: Reading habits and attitudes of preservice teachers. The Reading Teacher, 57(6), 554-563. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20205399
• Alves, R. A., Limpo, T., & Joshi, R. M. (2020). Introduction to reading-writing connections: The integration roads ahead. In R. A. Alves, T. Limpo & R. M. Joshi (Ed.), Reading-writing connections (pp. 1-7). Literacy Studies (Perspectives from Cognitive Neurosciences, Linguistics, Psychology and Education), 19. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38811-9_1
• Bañales, G., Ahumada, S., Graham, S., Puente, A., Guajardo, M., & Muñoz, I. (2020). Teaching writing in grades 4–6 in urban schools in Chile: A national survey. Reading and Writing, 33, 2661-2696. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-020-10055-z
• Bandura, A. (2006). Guide for constructing self-efficacy scales. F. Pajares & T. Urdan (Eds.), Self-efficacy beliefs of adolescents (pp. 307-337). Information Age.
• Baştuğ, M. (2015). Effects of primary school fourth-grade students' attitude, disposition and writer's block on writing success. Education and Science, 40(180), 73-88. http://dx.doi.org/10.15390/EB.2015.4279
• Benton, S. L., Corkill, A. J., Sharp, J. M., Downey, R. G., & Khramtsova, I. (1995). Knowledge, interest, and narrative writing. Journal of Educational Psychology, 87(1), 66-79.
• Berrier, D. (2009). The impact of teacher self-efficacy in writing on instruction and evaluation of writing in a school district in Western North Carolina. (Doctoral dissertation). Gardner-Webb University. Retrieved from https://digitalcommons.gardner-webb.edu/education_etd/101/
• Boekaerts, M., & Corno, L. (2005). Self‐Regulation in the Classroom: A perspective on assessment and intervention. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 54(2), 199-231. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.2005.00205.x
• Brindle, M., Graham, S., Harris, K. R., & Hebert, M. (2016). Third and fourth grade teacher's classroom practices in writing: A national survey. Reading and Writing, 29, 929-954. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-015-9604-x
• Bruning, R., & Horn, C. (2000). Developing motivation to write. Educational Psychologist, 35(1), 25-37. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3501_4
• Brunstein, J. C., & Glaser, C. (2011). Testing a path-analytic mediation model of how self-regulated writing strategies improve fourth graders’ composition skills: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Educational Psychology, 103(4), 922-938. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024622
• Choi, S. (2013). Language anxiety in second language writing: Is it really a stumbling block?. Second Language Studies, 31(2), 1-42. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Language-anxiety-in-second-language-writing%3A-Is-it-Choi/5e66276bda44d8c84b9e38aec78794d2c6147210
• Daly, J. A. (1985). Writing apprehension. In M. Rose (Ed.), When a writer can't write: Studies in writer's block and other composing-process problems (pp. 43-82). Guilford Press. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/306375000_Writing_Apprehension
• Daly, J. A., & Miller, M. D. (1975). Apprehension of writing as a predictor of message intensity. The Journal of Psychology, 89(2), 175-177. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/254346330_Apprehension_of_Writing_as_a_Predictor_of_Message_Intensity#:~:text=Ninety%2Deight%20undergraduate%20students%20completed,with%20low%20apprehension%20(p%20%3C%20.
• Deniz, E. (2017). The relationships between seventh graders' grammar, vocabulary, reading comprehension levels and writing skills. (Doctoral dissertation). İnönü University. Retrieved from https://tez.yok.gov.tr/
• Englert, C. S., Raphael, T. E., Fear, K. L., & Anderson, L. M. (1988). Students’ metacognitive knowledge about how to write informational texts. Learning Disability Quarterly, 11(1), 18-46. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1511035?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents
• Fisher, J. E. (2017). The intelligent essay assessor autograder and its effect on reducing college writing anxiety. (Doctoral dissertation). Keiser University. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/1896655319?pq-origsite=gscholar&fromopenview=true
• Fitzgerald, J., & Markham, L. R. (1987). Teaching children about revision in writing. Cognition and Instruction, 4(1), 3-24. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532690xci0401_1
• Fraenkel, J. R., Wallen, N. E., & Hyun, H. H. (2011). How to design and evaluate research in education. McGraw-Hill.
• Gaitas, S., & Martins, M. A. (2015). Relationships between primary teachers’ beliefs and their practices in relation to writing instruction. Research Papers in Education, 30(4), 492-505. https://doi.org/10.1080/02671522.2014.908406
• Gilbert, J., & Graham, S. (2010). Teaching writing to elementary students in grades 4–6: A national survey. The Elementary School Journal, 110(4), 494-518. https://doi.org/10.1086/651193
• Gillespie, A., Olinghouse, N. G., & Graham, S. (2013). Fifth-grade students' knowledge about writing process and writing genres. The Elementary School Journal, 113(4), 565–588. https://doi.org/10.1086/669938
• Graham, S. (2020). Reading and writing connections: A commentary. In R. A. Alves, T. Limpo & R. M. Joshi (Ed.), Reading-writing connections (pp. 313-317). Literacy Studies (Perspectives from Cognitive Neurosciences, Linguistics, Psychology and Education), 19. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38811-9_19
• Graham, S. (2006). Writing. In P. Alexander & P. Winne (Ed.), Handbook of educational psychology (pp. 457-478). Erlbaum.
• Graham, S., Berninger, V., & Fan, W. (2007). The structural relationship between writing attitude and writing achievement in first and third grade students. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 32, 516-536. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0361476X07000057
• Graham, S., Bollinger, A., Booth-Olson, C., D'Aoust, C., MacArthur, C., McCutchen, D., & Olinghouse, N. (2012). Teaching elementary school students to be effective writers: A practice guide (NCEE 2012-4058). National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED533112.pdf
• Graham, S., & Harris, K. R. (2009). Evidence-based writing practices: Drawing recommendations from multiple sources. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 6, 95-111. https://doi.org/10.1348/000709909X421928
• Graham, S., & Harris, K. R. (2000). The role of self-regulation and transcription skills in writing and writing development. Educational Psychologist, 35(1), 3-12. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3501_2
• Graham, S., Harris, K. R., Fink, B., & MacArthur, C. A. (2001). Teacher efficacy in writing: A construct validation with primary grade teachers. Scientific Studies of Reading, 5(2), 177-202. https://doi.org/10.1207/S1532799Xssr0502_3
• Graham, S., Harris, K. R., Kiuhara, S. A., & Fishman, E. J. (2017). The relationship among strategic writing behavior, writing motivation, and writing performance with young, developing writers. The Elementary School Journal, 118(1), 82-104. https://doi.org/10.1086/693009
• Graham, S., Harris, K. R., MacArthur, C., & Fink, B. (2002). Primary grade teachers’ theoretical orientations concerning writing instruction: Construct validation and a nationwide survey. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 27, 147-166. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.2001.1085
• Graham, S., Harris, K. R., MacArthur, C., & Santangelo, T. (2018). Self-regulation and writing. In D. H. Schunk & J. A. Greene (Ed.), Handbook of self-regulation of learning and performance (pp. 138-152). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315697048
• Graham, S., Harris, K. R., & Mason, L. (2005). Improving the writing performance, knowledge, and self-efficacy of struggling young writers: The effects of self-regulated strategy development. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 30, 207-241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2004.08.001
• Graham, S., Morphy, P., Fink-Chorzempa, B., Saadler, B., Moran, S. & Mason, L. (2008). Teaching spelling in the primary grades: A national survey of instructional practices and adaptations. American Educational Research Journal, 45(3), 796-825. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831208319722
• Graham, S., Schwartz, S. S., & MacArthur, C. A. (1993). Knowledge of writing and the composing process, attitude toward writing, and self-efficacy for students with and without learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 26(4), 237-249. https://doi.org/10.1177/002221949302600404
• Graham, S., Wijekumar, K., Harris, K. R., Lei, P-W., Fishman, E., Ray, A. B., & Houston, J. (2019). Writing skills, knowledge, motivation, and strategic behavior predict students’ persuasive writing performance in the context of robust writing instruction. The Elementary School Journal, 119(3), 487-510. https://doi.org/10.1086/701720
• Hammann, L. (2005). Self-regulation in academic writing tasks. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 17(1), 15-26. http://www.isetl.org/ijtlhe/pdf/IJTLHE14.pdf
• Harris, K. R., Graham, S., & Mason, L. H. (2006). Improving the writing, knowledge, and motivation of struggling young writers: Effects of self-regulated strategy development with and without peer support. American Educational Research Journal, 43(2), 295-340. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312043002295
• Harris, K. R., Graham, S., Mason, L. H., & Saddler, B. (2002). Developing self-regulated writers. Theory Into Practice, 41(2), 110-115. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15430421tip4102_7
• Harris, K. R., Santangelo, T., & Graham, S. (2010). Metacognition and strategies instruction in writing. In H. S. Waters & W. Schneider (Ed.), Metacognition, strategy use & instruction (pp. 226-256). Guilford Press.
• Hodges, T. S. (2015). The impact of teacher education writing-intensive courses on preservice teachers’ self-efficacy for writing and writing instruction. (Doctoral dissertation). Texas A&M University. Retrieved from https://oaktrust.library.tamu.edu/handle/1969.1/155427
• Jouhar, M. R., & Rupley, W. H. (2020). The reading–writing connection based on independent reading and writing: A systematic review. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1080/10573569.2020.1740632
• Karakoç-Öztürk, B. (2012). The study of writing anxiety of the elementary school students in terms of various variables. Çukurova University Institute of Social Sciences, 21(2), 59-72. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/cusosbil/issue/4390/60354 Katrancı, M. & Temel, S. (2018). Writing anxiety scale for primary school student: A validity and reliability study. Journal of Social Humanities Sciences Research (JSHSR), 5(24), 1544-1555. https://doi.org/10.26450/jshsr.516
• Kaya, B. & Ateş, S. (2016). The effect of process-based writing focused on metacognitive skills-oriented to fourth grade students’ narrative writing skill. Education and Science, 41(187), 137-164. http://dx.doi.org/10.15390/EB.2016.6752
• Kim, Y.-S. G. (2019). Structural relations of language and cognitive skills, and topic knowledge to written composition: A test of the direct and indirect effects model of writing. British Journal of Educational Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12330
• Kim, Y.-S. G., & Schatschneider, C. (2017). Expanding the developmental models of writing: A direct and indirect effects model of developmental writing (DIEW). Journal of Educational Psychology, 109(1), 35-50. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000129
• Kiuhara, S. A., Graham, S., & Hawken, L. S. (2009). Teaching writing to high school students: A national survey. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(1), 136-160. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232555095_Teaching_Writing_to_High_School_Students_A_National_Survey
• Koons, H. H. (2008). The reading-writing connection: An investigation of the relationship between reading ability and writing quality across multiple grades and three writing discourse modes. (Doctoral dissertation). University of North Carolina. Retrieved from https://cdr.lib.unc.edu/concern/dissertations/2801pg72b
• Krippendorff, K. (1995). On the reliability of unitizing continuous data. Sociological Methodology, 25, 47-76. https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/271061.pdf
• Limpo, T., & Alves, R. A. (2013). Modeling writing development: contribution of transcription and self-regulation to Portuguese students’ text generation quality. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(2), 401-413. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031391
• Lin, S.C., Monroe, B. W., & Troia, G. A. (2007). Development of writing knowledge in grades 2-8: A comparison of typically developing writers and their struggling peers. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 23, 207-230. https://doi.org/10.1080/10573560701277542
• Lunenburg, F. C., & Lunenburg, M. R. (2014). Teaching writing in elementary schools: Using the learning-to-write process. International Journal of Education, 2(1), 1-27. http://www.nationalforum.com/Electronic%20Journal%20Volumes/Lunenburg,%20Fred%20Teaching%20Writing%20in%20Elementary%20Schools%20-%20IJOE%20V2%20N1%202014.pdf
• MacArthur, C. A., & Philippakos, Z. A. (2013). Self-regulated strategy instruction in developmental writing: A design research project. Community College Review, 41(2), 176-195. https://doi.org/10.1177/0091552113484580
• MacArthur, C. A., Philippakos, Z. A., & Ianetta, M. (2015). Self-regulated strategy instruction in college developmental writing. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(3), 855-867. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000011
• McLeod, S. (1987). Some thoughts about feelings: The affective domain and the writing process. College Composition and Communication, 38(4), 426-435. https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/357635.pdf
• McQuitty, V. (2011). Lesson study: Developing a knowledge base for elementary writing instruction. (Doctoral dissertation). Syracuse University. Retrieved from https://surface.syr.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1237&context=tl_etd
• Moerbeek, M., Breukelen, G. J. P., & Berger, M. P. F. (2003). A comparison between traditional methods and multilevel regression for the analysis of multicenter intervention studies. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 56, 341-350. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0895-4356(03)00007-6
• Mohtar, T. M. T., Singh, C. K. S., Kepol, N., Ahmad, A. Z. L., & Moneyam, S. (2017). Analysis of teacher beliefs and efficacy for teaching writing to weak learners. English Language Teaching, 10(9), 208-217. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v10n9p208
• Nami, Y., Enayati, T., & Ashouri, M. (2012). The relationship between self-regulation approaches and learning approaches in English writing tasks on English foreign language students. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 47, 614-618. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.06.705
• Olinghouse, N. G., & Graham, S. (2009). The relationship between the discourse knowledge and the writing performance of elementary-grade students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(1), 37-50. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013462
• Öztürk, E. (2013). The psychometric properties of the writing motivation scale. International Online Journal of Educational Sciences, 5(2), 351-360. http://www.acarindex.com/dosyalar/makale/acarindex-1423904233.pdf
• Pajares, M. F., & Margaret, J. J. (1994). Confidence and competence in writing: The role of self-efficacy, outcome expectancy, and apprehension. Research in the Teaching of English, 28(3), 313-331. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40171341?seq=2#metadata_info_tab_contents
• Piazza, C. L., & Siebert, C. F. (2008). Development and validation of a writing dispositions scale for elementary and middle school students. The Journal of Educational Research, 101(5), 275-286. https://doi.org/10.3200/JOER.101.5.275-286
• Raudenbush, S. W., & Bryk, A. S. (2002). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods. Sage.
• Saddler, B., & Graham, S. (2007). The relationship between writing knowledge and writing performance among more and less skilled writers. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 23(3), 231-247. https://doi.org/10.1080/10573560701277575
• Takımcıgil-Özcan, S. (2014). Evaluation of writing motivations and story writing skills in elementary fourth grade students. (MA thesis). Sakarya University. Retrieved from https://tez.yok.gov.tr/
• Tekşan, K. (2012). Analysis of writing anxiety of secondary school students according to several variables. Educational Research and Reviews, 7(22), 487-493. https://doi.org/10.5897/ERR12.065
• Temel, S. (2018). The relationship between primary school students' written expression skills, writing attitudes and writing anxiety. (MA thesis). Kırıkkale University. Retrieved from https://tez.yok.gov.tr/
• Thornton, A. (2010). Teachers’ self-perception of their writing and their teaching of writing. (Doctoral dissertation). Capella University. Retrieved from https://www.proquest.com/docview/305245026
• Tompkins, G. E. (2018). Literacy for the 21st century: A balanced approach. Pearson.
• Tracy, B., Reid, R., & Graham, S. (2009). Teaching young students strategies for planning and drafting stories: The impact of self-regulated strategy development. Journal of Educational Research, 102(5), 323-331. https://doi.org/10.3200/JOER.102.5.323-332
• Troia, G. A., Harbaugh, A. G., Shankland, R. K., Wolbers, K. A., & Lawrence, A. M. (2013). Relationships between writing motivation, writing activity, and writing performance: Effects of grade, sex, and ability. Reading and Writing, 26, 17-44. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-012-9379-2
• Ulusoy, M. (2008). Evaluating sixth graders’ reading levels with different cloze test formats. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 31, 115-133. https://www.academia.edu/32072539/Evaluating_Sixth_Graders_Reading_Levels_with_Different_Cloze_Test_Formats
• Veiga-Simão, A. M., Malpique, A. A., Frison, L. M. B., & Marques, A. (2016). Teaching writing to middle school students in Portugal and in Brazil: An exploratory study. Reading and Writing, 29(5), 955-979. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-015-9606-8
• Yıldız, M., Altuner-Çoban, G. Ş. & Yaşar-Sağlık, Z. (2020). The relationship between reading comprehension and writing skills: An investigation on primary fourth year students. Turkish Studies-Education, 15(2), 1367-1379. https://dx.doi.org/10.29228/TurkishStudies.41891
• Yıldız, M. & Yekeler, A. D. (2017). Writing performance of fourth grade primary school students in relation to organizational ability and handwriting proficiency: A structural equality model. Education and Science, 42(192), 99-112. http://dx.doi.org/10.15390/EB.2017.7172
• Zimmerman, B. J. (2008). Investigating self-regulation and motivation: Historical background, methodological developments, and future prospects. American Educational Research Journal, 45(1), 166-183. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831207312909
• Zimmerman, B. J., & Bandura, A. (1994). Impact of self-regulatory influences on writing course attainment. American Educational Research Journal, 31(4), 845-862. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312031004845
• Zimmerman, B. J., & Martinez-Pons, M. (1986). Development of a structured interview for assessing student use of self-regulated learning strategies. American Educational Research Journal, 23(4), 614-628. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312023004614
• Zimmerman, B. J., & Risemberg, R. (1997). Becoming a self-regulated writer: A social cognitive perspective. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 22(1), 73-101. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1477457?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents
• Zumbrunn, S. (2010). Nurturing your students’ writing knowledge, self-regulation, attitudes, and self-efficacy: The effects of self-regulated strategy development. (Doctoral dissertation). University of Nebraska. Retrieved from https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/188041765.pdf
• Zumbrunn, S., & Bruning, R. (2013). Improving the writing and knowledge of emergent writers: The effects of self-regulated strategy development. Reading and Writing, 26, 91-110. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-012-9384-5