The Important In Terms of Health of Flax (Linum usitatissimum L.)

Year 2020, Volume: 3 Issue: 1, 95 - 107, 15.04.2020

Funda Arslanoğlu , Selim Aytaç

https://doi.org/10.38001/ijlsb.690295

Cited By: 9

Abstract

The flax is one of the oldest known cultivated plants of the World that benefited from seeds and fibers. It is an important nutrient because of the rich α-linolenic acid (ALA, omega-3 fatty acid), lignans, short chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, soluble and insoluble fibers, phytoestrogenic lignans (secoisolariciresinol diglycoside-SDG), waxy and mucilage compounds, protein and antioxidant compounds. In addition, the seed contains components effective in reducing cardiovascular disorders, diabetes, digestive system, urinary tract disorders, osteoporosis, cancer, arthritis, autoimmune and neurological diseases. Seed protein content varies between 20-30%, of which approximately 80% consists of globulins and 20% glutelines. The amino acid level is so rich and gluten-free. The unconscious consumption of seed may cause toxicity due to trypsin, myo-inositol phosphate inhibitors, cadmium and cyanogenic glycosides in the seed. The seed should be consumed as milled flour after absolute heat treatment. Side effects may be seen in pregnant and young men due to hormonal effects of lignan. It may be oxidized shortly after grinding due to the fatty acids present in the seed. Flax fibers (Linen) have been used in house and fabric textiles, sailing and tent making since 7040 BC. The fibers are gold-yellow in color, the qualitative and moisture absorption capacity is very low, easily creasing. For this reason, the linen keeps the skin cool and does not sweat. Fiber is also an important source for healthy insulation materials, biocomposites, structural application materials for automotive, contributing both to the environment and to human health. In this paper, the effects of flax on human health and methods of traditional uses in Turkey were discussed with references.

Keywords

flax, traditional uses, lignan, cyanogenic glycoside, flaxseed

References

• 1. Haggerty W J, (1999) Flax: Ancient herb and modern medicine. HerbalGram 45:51–57.
• 2. Turan Z M (2000) Lif Bitkileri. Uludağ Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Ders Notları No:83, Bursa.
• 3. Grieve M (1985) A Modern Herbal: The Medicinal, Culinary, Cosmetic and Economic Properties, Cultivation and Folklore of Herbs, Grasses, Fungi, Shrubs and Trees with All Their Modern Scientific Uses. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin, 1980. ISBN: 0140464409.
• 4. Yan L. et al. (2014) Flax fibre and its composites – A review. Composites: Part B 56 (2014) 296–317. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2013.08.014.
• 5. Kvavadze E et al. (2009) 30,000 Years old wild flax fibers - Testimony for fabricating prehistoric linen. Science 325(5946): 1359. Doi:10.1126/science.1175404.
• 6. Berkol C (2013) Yazılı Kaynaklarda Yer Almış Osmanlı Kumaşlarının İrdelenmesi. Sanatta Yeterlik Tezi. Haliç Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Tekstil Ve Moda Tasarımı Anasanat Dalı Tekstil Ve Moda Tasarımı Programı, 214 sayfa.
• 7. Demirel S (2016) A Proposal About Linseed in Hittite Texts. Gazi Akademik Bakış Cilt 10 Sayı 19:161-167.
• 8. Bayramoğlu M M, Toksoy D (2008) Aktarlar ve tıbbi bitki ticareti üzerine bir araştırma. Orman Mühendisliği (4-5-6); 34-39, Ankara.
• 9. Faydaoglu E, Surucuoglu M S (2011) Geçmişten Günümüze Tıbbi Ve Aromatik Bitkilerin Kullanılması Ve Ekonomik Onemi. Kastamonu Univ., Journal of Forestry Faculty, 11 (1): pp. 52 - 67 .
• 10. Li X, Tabil lope G, Panigrahi S (2007). Chemical Treatments of Natural Fiber for Use in Natural Fiber-Reinforced Composites: A Review. J Polym Environ (2007) 15:25–33 DOI 10.1007/s10924-006-0042-3.
• 11. Baytop T (1999) Türkiye’de Bitkilerle Tedavi (Geçmişte ve Bugün). İlaveli ikinci Baskı., Nobel tıp Kitapevleri LTD. ŞTİ. İstanbul, pp. 459. (ISBN: 975-420-021-1).
• 12. Anonim (2019) https://textilestudycenter.com. Erişim tarihi: 9 Ekim 2019.
• 13. Akin Danny E (2013) Linen Most Useful: Perspectives on Structure, Chemistry, and Enzymes for Retting Flax. Hindawi Publishing Corporation ISRN Biotechnology Volume 2013, Article ID 186534, 23 pages http://dx.doi.org/10.5402/2013/186534.
• 14. Preisner M et al. (2015) The development, differentiation and composition of flax fiber cells. Postepy Biochem. 2015;61(4):416-29.
• 15. Sparnins E (2009) Mechanical Properties of Flax fibers and Their Composites. Doctoral Thesis. Page 220. Division of Polymer Engineering Department of Applied Physics and Mechanical Engineering Luleå University of Technology S-971 87 Luleå, SWEDEN. Printed by Universitetstryckeriet, Luleå 2009,ISSN: 1402-1544 ISBN 978-91-7439-025-4.
• 16. Celino A et al. (2014) The hygroscopic behavior of plant fibers:a review. Frontiers in Chemistry Vol. 1:43. Doi: 10.3389/fchem.2013.00043.
• 17. Biagiotti J et al (2004) A Review on Natural Fibre Based Composites–Part I:Structure, Processing and Properties of Vegetable Fibres. Journal of Natural Fibers, Vol. 1(2) 2004.
• 18. Mert M (2017) Lif Bitkileri. Güncellenmiş 2. Basım. Yayın no:1734. Fen Bilimleri No: 130. ISBN: 978-604-320-641-5.
• 19. Sharma H. S. S. et al. (1999) Comparison of Physical, Chemical, and Thermal Characteristics of Water-, Dew-, and Enzyme-Retted Flax Fibers. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, Vol. 74, 139–143 (1999).
• 20. Foulk J.A. et al (2007). Flax-cotton fiber blends: Miniature spinning, gin processing, and dust potential. Industrial Crops and Products 25 (2007) 8–16. doi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2006.05.001
• 21. Sorieul M et al. (2016) Plant Fibre: Molecular Structure and Biomechanical Properties, of a Complex Living Material, Influencing Its Deconstruction towards a Biobased Composite. Materials 2016, 9, 618; doi:10.3390/ma9080618.
• 22. Arslanoglu S F, Aytaç S, Ayan A K (2017) Keten. Karadeniz’in Lif Bitkileri Çalıstayı; Keten-Kenevir-Isırgan. Sayfa: 51-62. 5-6 Mayıs 2017-Samsun, Editors: Ali Kemal Ayan, Selim Aytaç, Ş.Funda Arslanoglu, Hasan Alp Şahin. ISBN: 9786052319017.
• 23. Laing R and Wilson S (2017) Wool and cotton blends for the high-end apparel sector , Procedia Engineering, pp. 96–103.
• 24. Das H, Kalita D (2014) Recent Development of Fiber Reinforced Composite Materials. Biosensors Nanotechnology, (441–496).
• 25. Behera B K (2007) Comfort And Handle Behaviour Of Linen-Blended Fabrics. Autex Research Journal, Vol. 7, No 1, March.
• 26. Kalia S et al (2013). Surface modification of plant fibers using environment friendly methods for their application in polymer composites, textile industry and antimicrobial activities: A review. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 1 (2013) 97–112.
• 27. Bavan D S, Kumar G C M (2010) Potential use of natural fiber composite materials in India. Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 29(24) 3600–3613. DOI: 10.1177/0731684410381151.
• 28. Kurt O, Dogan H, Demir A (2006) An Investigation To Establishe Of Suitable Winter Linseed Cultivars For Samsun Ecological Condition. J. of Fac. of Agric. OMU, 2006,21(1):1-5.
• 29. Rubilar M, Gutierrez C, Verdugo M, Shene C, Sineiro J (2010) Flaxseed As A Source Of Functional Ingredients. J. soil sci. plant nutr, pp. 10 (3): 373 – 377.
• 30. Hall III C, Tulbek M C, X u Y (2006) Flaxseed. Adv Food Nutr Res 51: pp. 1–97.
• 31. Baytop T (1994) Türkçe Bitki Adları Sözlüğü, Atatürk Kültür, Dil ve Tarih Yüksek Kurumu, Türk Dil Kurumu Yayını 578,2. Baskı, (ISBN: 975-16-0542 -3).
• 32. Zanwar A A et al. (2014) Antihyperlipidemic activity of concomitant administration ofmethanolic fraction of flax lignan concentrate and omega-3-fatty acidin poloxamer-407 induced experimental hyperlipidemia. Industrial Crops and Products 52 (2014) 656– 663.
• 33. Chung M, Lei B, Li-Chan E (2005) Isolation and structural characterization of the majör protein fraction from NorMan flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum L.). Food Chem, pp. 90, 271–279.
• 34. Heli Roy J, Lundy S, Eriksen C, Kalicki B (2007) Flaxseed A Review of Health Benefits. Pennington Nutrition Series No 5, 2007.
• 35. Oomah B (2003) Processing of flaxseed fiber, oil, protein, and lignan. In:Thompson, L., Cunnane, S. Editores. Flaxseed in Human Nutrition. 2nd. Edn. Champaing, Illinois, pp. 363- 386.
• 36. Daun J et al. (2003) Structure, composition, and variety development of flaxseed. In: Thompson, L., Cunanne, S. edition. Flaxseed in Human Nutrition. 2nd edition Champaign, Illinois. pp. 1-40
• 37. Mueller K, Eisner P, Yoshie-Stark Y , Nakada R, Kirchhoff E (2010) Functional properties and chemical composition of fractionated brown and yellow linseed meal (Linum usitatissimum), J. Food Eng., 98(4): pp. 453- 460.
• 38. Morris D H (2007) Flax: A health and nutrition primer. 4th edn. Available from: ww.flaxcouncil.ca.
• 39. Kaur P, Waghmare R, Kumar V, Rasane P, et al. (2018) Recent advances in utilization of flaxseed as potential source for value addition. (OCL 2018, 25(3), A304).
• 40. Abraham K, Buhrke T, Lampen A (2016) Bioavailability of cyanide after consumption of a single meal of foods containing high levels of cyanogenic glycosides: a crossover study in humans. Arch Toxicol, 90:559–574. (DOI 10.1007/s00204-015-1479-8).
• 41. Cunnane S C, and Thompson L U (1995) Flaxseed in human nutrition (1st ed). Champaign, AOCS Press.
• 42. Adreana L O and Edward J K (2003) Phytoestrogens: a Review of the Present State of Research. Phytotherapy Research, 17: pp. 845-869.
• 43. Coskuner Y and Karababa E (2007) Some physical properties of flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum L.). Journal of Food Engineering 78 (2007) 1067–1073.
• 44. Mani U V, Mani I, Biswas M, Kumar S N (2011) An open-label study on the effect of flax seed powder (Linum usitatissimum) supplementation in the management of diabetes mellitus. J Diet Suppl 8: pp. 257–265.
• 45. Kristensen M, Jensen M G, Aarestrup J, et al. (2012) Flaxseed dietary fibers lower cholesterol and increase fecal fat excretion, but magnitude of effect depend on food type. Nutr Metab 9: pp. 1–8.
• 46. Kristensen M, Savorani F, Christensen S, et al (2013) Flaxseed dietary fibers suppress postprandial lipemia and appetite sensation in young men. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc 23: pp. 136–143.
• 47. Tolkachev O N, Zhuchenko A A (2000) Biologically active substances of flax: Medicinal and nutritional properties (a review). Pharmaceutical Chemistry Journal, pp. 34, 360–367.
• 48. Bozan B, Temelli F (2008) Chemical composition and oxidative stability of flax, safflower and poppy seed and seed oils. Bioresource Technol, pp. 99, 6354–6359.
• 49. Ibrügger S, et al (2012) Flaxseed dietary fiber supplements for suppression of appetite and food intake. Appetite 58: pp. 490–495.
• 50. Thompson L U et al. (1991) Mammalian lignan production from various foods. Nutr Cancer, 16: pp. 43-52.
• 51. Obermeyer W R et al. (1995) Chemical studies of phytoestrogens and related compounds in dietary supplements: flax and chaparral Soc Exp Biol Med , 208: pp. 6-12.
• 52. Muir A D and Westcott N D (2000) Quantitation of lignan secoisolariciresinol diglucoside in baked goods containing flax seed of flax meal. J Agric Food Chem, 48: pp: 4048-4052.
• 53. Dabrosin C, et al. (2002) Flaxseeds inhibits metastasis and decreases extracellular vascular endothelial growth factor in human breast cancer xenografts. Cancer Lett, pp. 185:31-37.
• 54. Gaafar A A et al. (2013) In Vitro antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of Lignan flax seed extract (Linumusitatissimum, L.). Int. J. Pharm. Sci. Rev. Res., 23(2), Nov – Dec 2013; nᵒ 47, 291-297.
• 55. Hu C, Yuan Y V and Kitts D D (2007) Antioxidant activities of the flaxseed lignan secoisolariciresinol diglucoside, its aglycone secoisolariciresinol and the mammalian lignans enterodiol and enterolactone in vitro. Food Chem. Toxicol, 45: pp. 2219-2227.
• 56. Warrand J, Michaud P, Picton L, Muller G et al. (2003) Large-scale purification of water soluble polysaccharides from flaxseeds mucilage, and isolation of a new anionic polymer. Chromatographia, 58: pp. 331- 335.
• 57. Bloedon L T and Szapary O P (2004) Flaxseed and Cardiovascular Risk. Nutrition reviews. 62:18-27.
• 58. Chen J, Saggar J K, Ward W E, Thompson L U (2011) Effects of flaxseed lignan and oil on bone health of breast-tumor-bearing mice treated with or without tamoxifen. J Toxicol Environ Health 74: pp. 757–768.
• 59. Wang Y et al. (2015) Flaxseed lignan secoisolariciresinol diglucoside improves insulin sensitivity through upregulation of GLUT4 expression in diet-induced obese mice. Journal of Functional Foods 18 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 1–9.
• 60. Adlercreutz H (2007) Lignans and human health. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci 44: 483–525. Doi: 10.1080/10408360701612942.
• 61. Luo J, Li Y, Mai Y, Gao L, Ou S, et al. (2018) Flaxseed gum reduces body weight by regulating gut microbiota. Journal of Functional Foods, 47: pp. 136–142
• 62. Alzueta C, Rodríguez M L, Cutuli M T, Rebolé A, Ortiz, L T, et al. (2003) Effect of whole and demucilaged linseed in broiler chicken diets on digesta viscosity, nutrient utilization and intestinal microflora. British Poultry Science, pp. 44, 67–74.
• 63. Jenkins D J A et al. (1999) Health aspects of partially defatted flaxseed, including effects on serum lipids, oxidative measures, and ex vivo androgen and progestin activity: a controlled crossover trial. Am J Clin Nutr 69: pp. 395–402.
• 64. Simbalista R L, Sauerbronn A V, Aldrighi J M, Areas J A (2010) Consumption of a flaxseed-rich food is not more effective than a placebo in alleviating the climacteric symptoms of postmenopausal women. J Nutr. 2010;140(2):293-7.
• 65. Anonim (2014) Summary of Health Canada's Assessment of a Health Claim about Ground Whole Flaxseed and Blood Cholesterol Lowering. Bureau of Nutritional Sciences, Food Directorate, Health Products and Food Branch, Health, Canada. https://www.canada.ca.
• 66. Soldamli V, Arslanoglu S F (2019) Phytoestrogenic Plants; How Much Should Be Consumed? International Journalof Life Sciences and Biotechnology, 2019. 2(3): p. 183- 204. 67. Brezinski A et al. (1997) Short-term effects of phytoestrogen-rich diet on postmenopausal women. Menopause 4: pp.89-94.
• 68. Truan J S, Chen J M, Thompson L U (2012) Comparative effects of sesame seed lignan and flaxseed lignan in reducing the growth of human breast tumors (MCF-7) at high levels of circulating estrogen in athymic mice. Nutr Cancer pp. 64: 65–71.
• 69. Reethega V, Vishnu Priya V, Gayathri R (2018) Cytotoxicity potential of flaxseed oil on oral cancer cell lines. Int. J. Res. Pharm.Sci., 9(2),430-433.
• 70. Jangale N M et al (2013) Dietary flaxseed oil and fish oil modulates expression of antioxidant and inflammatory genes with alleviation of protein glycation status and inflammation in liver of streptozotocin–nicotinamide induced diabetic rats. Food Chemistry 141 (2013) pp. 187–195.
• 71. Thies F et al (2001). Dietary supplementation with gamma-linolenic acid or fish oil decreases T lymphocyte proliferation in healthy older humans. J Nutr. 2001 Jul;131(7):1918-27.
• 72. Kaithwas G and Majumdar D K (2010) Therapeutic effect of Linum usitatissimum (flaxseed/linseed) fixed oil on acute and chronic arthritic models in albino rats, Inflammopharmacology, vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 127–136, 2010.
• 73. Kaithwas G and Majumdar D K (2013) Effect of L. usitatissimum Flaxseed/Linseed) Fixed Oil against Distinct Phases of Inflammation. ISRN Inflammation Volume 2013, Article ID 735158, 4 pages http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/735158.
• 74. Connor W E (2007) Importance of n _ 3 fatty acids in health and disease. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, pp. 71, 171–175.
• 75. Natalucci-Hall C, Starr M (2018) Medicinal Plants and Natural Products: A Multi-Modal Treatment Program for A.D.H.D. and A.D.D. Int J Pharma Sci Res 5: 126. doi: https://doi.org/10.15344/2394-1502/2018/130.
• 76. Baranowski M, Enns J, Blewett H, et al. (2012) Dietary flaxseed oil reduces adipocyte size, adipose monocyte hemoattractant protein-1 levels and T-cell infiltration in obese, insulin-resistant rats, Cytokine 59 (2012), pp. 382–391.
• 77. Tomaz P J, Beltrame D J, Teles B G (2011) Impact of dietary flaxseed (linum usitatissimum) supplementation on biochemical profile in healthy rats. Grupo Aula Médica Madrid, Spain, Nutricion Hospitalaria, vol. 26, num. 4, julio-agosto, pp. 798-802.
• 78. Rajaram S (2014) Health benefits of plant-derived a-linolenic acid. Am J Clin Nutr 2014;100 (suppl):443S–8S.
• 79. Gutte K B, Sahoo A K, Ranveer R C (2015) Bioactive Components of Flaxseed and its Health Benefits. Int. J. Pharm. Sci. Rev. Res., 31(1), March – April 2015; Article No. 09, Pages: 42-51.
• 80. Üçer M (2010) Sivas Yöresinde Yerel Bitkilerden Yapılan İlaçlar. Bitkilerle Tedavi Sempozyumu. Bildiri kitabı, 5-6 Haziran 2010 Zeytinburnu. ISBN 978-975-00024-6-5, pp. 29-42.
• 81. Akan H, Sade B Y (2015) Kahta (Adıyaman) Merkezi ve Narince Köyü’nün Etnobotanik Açıdan Araştırılması. BEU Journal of Science 4(2), pp. 219-248.
• 82. Ertuğ-Yaraş F (1997) An Ethnoarchaeological Study of Subsistence and Plant Gathering in Central Anatolia, Basılmamış doktora tezi (PhD thesis), Washington University, St. Louis.
• 83. Yapıcı İ Ü, Hoşgören H, Saya Ö (2009) Ethnobotanical Features of Kurtalan District, Dicle Universitesi Ziya Gökalp Egitim Fakultesi Dergisi, Siirt, 12: pp. 191-196 .
• 84. Ertuğ F (1998) Flax/Linum and Eruca, among the important oil plants of Anatolia: Linseed oil and Oil mills in Central Anatolia. TÜBA-AR I, pp. 113-127.
• 85. Deniz L, Serteser A, Kargioğlu M, (2010) Uşak Üniversitesi ve Yakın Çevresindeki Bazı Bitkilerin Mahalli Adları ve Etnobotanik özellikleri. AKÜ Fen Bilimleri Dergisi, 01: pp. 57-72.
• 86. Arslanoglu S F (2019) Consumption methods of flaxseed in Anatolia. Interviews with consumers. Unpublished data.Ondokuz Mayis University, Faculty of Agriculture, Field Crops Department, February 2019.
• 87. Eröztürk N (2004) Tanrın’nın Sağlık Bahçesi. 3rd Edition. Page 223. Anahtar Kitaplar Yayınevi. ISBN 975-8612-02-6.
• 88. Üçer M (1974) Sivas’ta Aktar Dükkânları, Şifalı Bitkiler ve Ev İlâçları I-Attariye Çeşitleri, Sivas Folkloru, Sivas, pp. 18-22.
• 89. Üstü Y, Keskin A (2019) The Medicinal Use of Linseed. Ankara Med J, 2019;(3):665-9 DOI: 10.17098/amj.624535.
• 90. Singh K K, Mridula D, Rehal J, Barnwal P (2011) Flaxseed: A potential source of food, feed and fiber. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 51: pp. 210–222. (Doi: 10.1080/10408390903537241).
• 91. Renfrew J M (1985) "Finds of Sesame and Linseed in Ancient Iraq", Bulletin on Sumerian Agriculture, II: pp. 63-66.
• 92. Roseling H (1994) Measuring effects in humans of dietary cyanide exposure to sublethal cyanogens from Cassava in Africa. Acta Hortic, 375: pp. 271–283.
• 93. Wanasundara P K J P D et al. (1993) Removal of cyanogenic glycosides of flaxseed meal. Food Chemistry. 48 (3): 263-266.
• 94. Ganorkar P M, Jain R K (2013) Flaxseed – a nutritional punch. International Food Research Journal 20(2): 519-525.
• 95. Pirinçci I and Tanyildizi S (1994) Yemlerdeki HCN Düzeylerinin Belirlenmesi. Vet. Bil. Derg, pp. 10, 1-2. 84-89.
• 96. Ertuğ F, Tumen G, Celik A, Dirmenci T (2004) Buldan Etnobotanik Alan Araştırması 2003. Tuba Kultur Envanteri Dergisi, Denizli, 2: pp. 187-2018.
• 97. Ajmandi B H, Khan D A, Shanil Juma, Drum ML, et al. (1998) Whole flaxseed consumption lowers serum LDL-cholesterol and lipoprotein(a) concentrations in postmenopausal women. Nutr Res, 18(7):1203-14.
• 98. Bloedon L T, Balikai S, Chittams J, Cunnane S C, et al. (2008) Flaxseed and cardiovascular risk factors: Results from a double blind, randomized, controlled clinical trial. J Am Coll Nutr; 27(1): pp.65-74.
• 99. Dodin S, Lemay A, Jacques H, Legare F, Forest J C, Masse B (2005) The effects of flaxseed dietary supplement on lipid profile, bone mineral density, and symptoms in menopausal women: A randomized, double-blind, wheat germ placebo-controlled clinical trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 90(3):1390-7.
• 100. Kajla P, Sharma A, Sood D R (2015). Flaxseed—a potential functional food source. J Food Sci Technol. 52(4):1857–1871. DOI 10.1007/s13197-014-1293-y.