A Comprehensive Review on Desiccant Materials, Their Advanced Regeneration Methods and Cooling Technologies

Year 2026, Volume: 29 Issue: 1 , 104 - 130 , 08.03.2026

Mohd Adnan , Mohammad Asif , Taliv Hussain

https://doi.org/10.5541/ijot.1843299

https://izlik.org/JA63CJ35AH

Abstract

Desiccant-based air-conditioning systems have emerged as a promising alternative to conventional vapor-compression cooling, particularly for managing latent loads in hot–humid climates. This comprehensive review synthesizes more than a hundred experimental, numerical and techno-economic studies on solid, liquid and composite desiccant systems, with particular emphasis on desiccant material selection, regeneration methods and cooling technologies. Solid desiccants, especially silica gel remains the dominant material due to its low cost and ability to regenerate at moderate temperatures requirements (50–90°C) compatible with solar and low-grade waste heat, whereas zeolites, molecular sieves and advanced composites extend applicability to low-humidity or high-temperature environments but demand further durability and high-temperature regeneration assessment. Liquid desiccants such as LiCl and CaCl₂ demonstrate high moisture-absorption capacity and stable operation within 40–90°C, though long-term corrosion and carryover remain key constraints. composite desiccants, which synergistically combine solid matrices with hygroscopic salts, demonstrate notable performance gains, reporting 68–270% increases in equilibrium uptake and reduced regeneration energy demand. Across all system categories, a clear trend toward solar-thermal, heat-pump and waste-heat-driven regeneration is observed, achieving competitive thermal COP values relative to electric heating. Hybrid configurations integrating desiccant units with indirect or direct evaporative cooling, Maisotsenko-cycle devices, and vapour-compression subsystems consistently enhance COP and reduce electrical consumption by 20–50%. The review concludes that climate-specific material selection, regeneration-temperature matching, and composite-coated heat exchangers are central to advancing next-generation, low-carbon desiccant cooling technologies.

Keywords

Desiccant air conditioning system , desiccant materials , regeneration methods and cooling technologies.

References

• M. Khoukhi, “A Study of Desiccant-Based Cooling and Dehumidifying System in Hot-Humid Climate,” International Journal of Materials, Mechanics and Manufacturing, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 191–194, 2013, doi: 10.7763/ijmmm.2013.v1.41.
• Z. Rao, S. Wang, and Z. Zhang, “Energy saving latent heat storage and environmental friendly humidity-controlled materials for indoor climate,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 16, no. 5, pp. 3136–3145, Jun. 2012, doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2012.01.053.
• H. Parmar and D. A. Hindoliya, “Desiccant Cooling System for Thermal Comfort: A Review,” International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology, vol. 3, no. 5, May 2011.
• American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, ASHRAE handbook: 2008; heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning systems and equipment, Inch-Pound Ed. Atlanta, Ga, 2008.
• S. Shimooka, M. Yamazaki, T. Takewaki, E. Akashige, F. Ikehata, H. Kakiuchi, M. Kubota, and H. Matsuda, “Improvement of water adsorptivity of activated carbon for adsorption heat pump by hydrophilic treatment,” in Proc. Int. Symp. EcoTopia Science, Nagoya, Japan, Nov. 23–25, 2007, pp. 74–77.
• L.-Z. Zhang, H.-X. Fu, Q.-R. Yang, and J.-C. Xu, “Performance comparisons of honeycomb-type adsorbent beds (wheels) for air dehumidification with various desiccant wall materials,” Energy, vol. 65, pp. 430–440, Feb. 2014, doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2013.11.042.
• K. Daou, R. Wang, and Z. Xia, “Desiccant cooling air conditioning: a review,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 55–77, Apr. 2006, doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2004.09.010.
• S. Pramuang and R. H. B. Exell, “The regeneration of silica gel desiccant by air from a solar heater with a compound parabolic concentrator,” Renewable Energy, vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 173–182, Jan. 2007, doi: 10.1016/j.renene.2006.02.009.
• D. La, Y. Dai, Y. Li, T. Ge, and R. Wang, “Study on a novel thermally driven air conditioning system with desiccant dehumidification and regenerative evaporative cooling,” Building and Environment, vol. 45, no. 11, pp. 2473–2484, Nov. 2010, doi: 10.1016/j.buildenv.2010.05.008.
• H. Parmar and D. A. Hindoliya, “Performance of solid desiccant-based evaporative cooling system under the climatic zones of India,” International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 52–57, Feb. 2012, doi: 10.1093/ijlct/ctr051.
• M. S. Dezfouli, Z. Hashim, M. H. Ruslan, B. Bakhtyar, K. Sopian, A. Zaharim, S. Mat, and A. Rachman, “Experimental investigation of solar hybrid desiccant cooling system in hot and humid weather of Malaysia,” in Proc. 10th WSEAS Int. Conf. Environment, Ecosystems and Development, Montreux, Switzerland, Dec. 29–31, 2012, pp. 172–176.
• A. Rachman, Z. M. Enggsa, S. Mat, and K. Sopian, “Performance of solid desiccant cooling with solar energy in hot and humid climate,” J. Sustainability Science and Management, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 150–155, 2014.
• W. Gao, W. Worek, V. Konduru, and K. Adensin, “Numerical study on performance of a desiccant cooling system with indirect evaporative cooler,” Energy and Buildings, vol. 86, pp. 16–24, Jan. 2015, doi: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2014.09.049.
• D. B. Jani, M. Mishra, and P. K. Sahoo, “Solar Assisted Solid Desiccant—Vapor Compression Hybrid Air-Conditioning System,” in Applications of Solar Energy (Energy, Environment, and Sustainability), H. Tyagi, A. K. Agarwal, P. R. Chakraborty, and S. Powar, Eds. Singapore: Springer, 2018, ch. 12, pp. 233–250.
• J. Y. Zhang, T. S. Ge, Y. J. Dai, Y. Zhao, and R. Z. Wang, “Experimental investigation on solar powered desiccant coated heat exchanger humidification air conditioning system in winter,” Energy, vol. 137, pp. 468–478, Oct. 2017, doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2017.02.164.
• R. P. Singh, R. K. Das, and V. K. Mishra, “Exergy analysis of desiccant assisted evaporative cooling system,” International Journal of Engineering Technology Science and Research, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 1191–1201, 2018.
• A. Kashif, M. Ali, N. A. Sheikh, V. Vukovic, and M. Shehryar, “Experimental analysis of a solar assisted desiccant-based space heating and humidification system for cold and dry climates,” Applied Thermal Engineering, vol. 175, Jul. 2020, Art. no. 115371, doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2020.115371.
• Yadav and V. K. Bajpai, “Experimental Comparison of Various Solid Desiccants for Regeneration by Evacuated Solar Air Collector and Air Dehumidification,” Drying Technology, vol. 30, no. 5, pp. 516–525, Apr. 2012, doi: 10.1080/07373937.2011.647997.
• K. A. Joudi and S. M. Madhi, “An experimental investigation into a solar assisted desiccant-evaporative air-conditioning system,” Solar Energy, vol. 39, no. 2, pp. 97–107, 1987, doi: 10.1016/S0038-092x(87)80037-3.
• S. Singh and P. P. Singh, “Regeneration of silica gel in multi-shelf regenerator,” Renewable Energy, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 105–119, Jan. 1998, doi: 10.1016/s0960-1481(97)00056-6.
• K. F. Fong, T. T. Chow, C. K. Lee, Z. Lin, and L. S. Chan, “Advancement of solar desiccant cooling system for building use in subtropical Hong Kong,” Energy and Buildings, vol. 42, no. 12, pp. 2386–2399, Dec. 2010, doi: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2010.08.008.
• D. La, Y. Dai, Y. Li, T. Ge, and R. Wang, “Case study and theoretical analysis of a solar driven two-stage rotary desiccant cooling system assisted by vapor compression air-conditioning,” Solar Energy, vol. 85, no. 11, pp. 2997–3009, Nov. 2011, doi: 10.1016/j.solener.2011.08.039.
• E. Hürdoğan, O. Büyükalaca, T. Yılmaz, A. Hepbasli, and İ. Uçkan, “Investigation of solar energy utilization in a novel desiccant based air conditioning system,” Energy and Buildings, vol. 55, pp. 757–764, Dec. 2012, doi: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2012.02.017.
• P. Bourdoukan, E. Wurtz, and P. Joubert, “Experimental investigation of a solar desiccant cooling installation,” Solar Energy, vol. 83, no. 11, pp. 2059–2073, Nov. 2009, doi: 10.1016/j.solener.2009.08.005.
• S. Jribi, B. B. Saha, S. Koyama, and H. Bentaher, “Modeling and simulation of an activated carbon–CO2 four bed based adsorption cooling system,” Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 78, pp. 985–991, Feb. 2014, doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2013.06.061.
• Y. Tso, K. C. Chan, C. Y. H. Chao, and C. L. Wu, “Experimental performance analysis on an adsorption cooling system using zeolite 13X/CaCl2 adsorbent with various operation sequences,” International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 85, pp. 343–355, Jun. 2015, doi: 10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2015.02.005.
• T. Robbins and S. Garimella, “An autonomous solar driven adsorption cooling system,” Solar Energy, vol. 211, pp. 1318–1324, Nov. 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.solener.2020.10.068.
• A. Alahmer, X. Wang, and K. C. A. Alam, “Dynamic and Economic Investigation of a Solar Thermal-Driven Two-Bed Adsorption Chiller under Perth Climatic Conditions,” Energies, vol. 13, no. 4, Feb. 2020, Art. no. 1005, doi: 10.3390/en13041005.
• A. A. Sha and V. Baiju, “Thermodynamic analysis and performance evaluation of activated carbon-ethanol two-bed solar adsorption cooling system,” International Journal of Refrigeration, vol. 123, pp. 81–90, Mar. 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2020.12.006.
• N. Enteria et al., “Development and construction of the novel solar thermal desiccant cooling system incorporating hot water production,” Applied Energy, vol. 87, no. 2, pp. 478–486, Feb. 2010, doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2009.08.026.
• G. Angrisani, A. Capozzoli, F. Minichiello, C. Roselli, and M. Sasso, “Desiccant wheel regenerated by thermal energy from a microcogenerator: Experimental assessment of the performances,” Applied Energy, vol. 88, no. 4, pp. 1354–1365, Apr. 2011, doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2010.09.025.
• G. Angrisani, C. Roselli, and M. Sasso, “Experimental assessment of the energy performance of a hybrid desiccant cooling system and comparison with other air-conditioning technologies,” Applied Energy, vol. 138, pp. 533–545, Jan. 2015, doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.10.065.
• W.-J. Luo, Dini Faridah, Fikri Rahmat Fasya, Y.-S. Chen, Fikri Hizbul Mulki, and Utami Nuri Adilah, “Performance Enhancement of Hybrid Solid Desiccant Cooling Systems by Integrating Solar Water Collectors in Taiwan,” Energies, vol. 12, no. 18, Sep. 2019, Art. no. 3470, doi: 10.3390/en12183470.
• Y. Zhao, Y. J. Dai, T. S. Ge, H. H. Wang, and R. Z. Wang, “A high performance desiccant dehumidification unit using solid desiccant coated heat exchanger with heat recovery,” Energy and Buildings, vol. 116, pp. 583–592, Mar. 2016, doi: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.01.021.
• A. Kodama, N. Watanabe, T. Hirose, M. Goto, and H. Okano, “Performance of a Multipass Honeycomb Adsorber Regenerated by a Direct Hot Water Heating,” Adsorption, vol. 11, no. S1, pp. 603–608, Jul. 2005, doi: 10.1007/s10450-005-5992-6.
• Al-Alili, Y. Hwang, and R. Radermacher, “Performance of a desiccant wheel cycle utilizing new zeolite material: Experimental investigation,” Energy, vol. 81, pp. 137–145, Mar. 2015, doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2014.11.084.
• K. Ando, A. Kodama, T. Hirose, M. Goto, and H. Okano, “Experimental Study on a Process Design for Adsorption Desiccant Cooling Driven with a Low-Temperature Heat,” Adsorption, vol. 11, no. S1, pp. 631–636, Jul. 2005, doi: 10.1007/s10450-005-5997-1.
• A. Jalalzadeh-Azar, S. Slayzak, R. Judkoff, T. Schamuser, and R. DeBlasio, “Performance Assessment of a Desiccant Cooling System in a CHP Application with an IC Engine,” International Journal of Distributed Energy Resources, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 163–184, 2026.
• G. Angrisani, F. Minichiello, C. Roselli, and M. Sasso, “Experimental investigation to optimise a desiccant HVAC system coupled to a small size cogenerator,” Applied Thermal Engineering, vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 506–512, Mar. 2011, doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2010.10.006.
• F. Ge, X. Guo, Z. Hu, and Y. Chu, “Energy savings potential of a desiccant assisted hybrid air source heat pump system for residential building in hot summer and cold winter zone in China,” Energy and Buildings, vol. 43, no. 12, pp. 3521–3527, Dec. 2011, doi: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2011.09.021.
• Y. Sheng, Y. Zhang, L. Fang, J. Nie, and L. Ma, “Optimization analysis of high temperature heat pump coupling to desiccant wheel air conditioning system,” Transactions of Tianjin University, vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 182–188, Jun. 2014, doi: 10.1007/s12209-014-2191-0.
• G. Angrisani, F. Minichiello, C. Roselli, and M. Sasso, “Desiccant HVAC system driven by a micro-CHP: Experimental analysis,” Energy and Buildings, vol. 42, no. 11, pp. 2028–2035, Nov. 2010, doi: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2010.06.011.
• G. Angrisani, G. Diglio, M. Sasso, F. Calise, and M. Dentice d’Accadia, “Design of a novel geothermal heating and cooling system: Energy and economic analysis,” Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 108, pp. 144–159, Jan. 2016, doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2015.11.001.
• J. Jeong, S. Yamaguchi, K. Saito, and S. Kawai, “Performance analysis of four-partition desiccant wheel and hybrid dehumidification air-conditioning system,” International Journal of Refrigeration, vol. 33, no. 3, pp. 496–509, May 2010, doi: 10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2009.12.001.
• H. Halid, A. Hafiz P. A., P. S. J., and S. S. R. U., “Experimental analysis of solid desiccant wheel dehumidifier,” International Journal of Research in Mechanical Engineering, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 104–109, May–Jun. 2016.
• A. Pacak, A. Cichoń, D. Pandelidis, and S. Anisimov, “Impact of indirect evaporative air cooler type on the performance of desiccant systems,” in Proc. 10th Int. Conf. EKO-DOK 2018, vol. 44, Polanica-Zdroj, Poland, Art. no. 00134, doi: 10.1051/e3sconf/20184400134.
• U Hanifah, M. A. Karim, A Haryanto, R Alfiyah, and A Taufan, “Experimental Performance of A Rotary Desiccant Wheel Without Honeycomb Matrix Structure: A Preliminary Study,” IOP conference series. Materials science and engineering, vol. 1096, no. 1, Mar. 2021, Art. no. 012043, doi: 10.1088/1757-899x/1096/1/012043.
• W. R. Abd-Elrahman, A. M. Hamed, S. H. El-Emam, and M. M. Awad, “Experimental investigation on the performance of radial flow desiccant bed using activated alumina,” Applied Thermal Engineering, vol. 31, no. 14–15, pp. 2709–2715, May 2011, doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2011.04.041.
• A. Alahmer, S. Alsaqoor, and G. Borowski, “Effect of parameters on moisture removal capacity in the desiccant cooling systems,” Case Studies in Thermal Engineering, vol. 13, Mar. 2019, Art. no. 100364, doi: 10.1016/j.csite.2018.11.015.
• B. Jani, M. Mishra, and P. K. Sahoo, “Experimental investigation on solid desiccant–vapor compression hybrid air-conditioning system in hot and humid weather,” Applied Thermal Engineering, vol. 104, pp. 556–564, Jul. 2016, doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2016.05.104.
• S. Ahmed, P. A. Nelson, and D. W. Dees, “Study of a dry room in a battery manufacturing plant using a process model,” Journal of Power Sources, vol. 326, pp. 490–497, Sep. 2016, doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.06.107.
• E. Hürdoğan, O. Büyükalaca, T. Yılmaz, and A. Hepbaşlı, “Experimental investigation of a novel desiccant cooling system,” Energy and Buildings, vol. 42, no. 11, pp. 2049–2060, Nov. 2010, doi: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2010.06.014.
• G. Heidarinejad and H. Pasdarshahri, “The effects of operational conditions of the desiccant wheel on the performance of desiccant cooling cycles,” Energy and Buildings, vol. 42, no. 12, pp. 2416–2423, Dec. 2010, doi: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2010.08.011.
• N. Enteria et al., “Experimental heat and mass transfer of the separated and coupled rotating desiccant wheel and heat wheel,” Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science, vol. 34, no. 5, pp. 603–615, Jul. 2010, doi: 10.1016/j.expthermflusci.2009.12.001.
• S. De Antonellis, C. M. Joppolo, and L. Molinaroli, “Simulation, performance analysis and optimization of desiccant wheels,” Energy and Buildings, vol. 42, no. 9, pp. 1386–1393, Sep. 2010, doi: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2010.03.007.
• G. Panaras, E. Mathioulakis, V. Belessiotis, and N. Kyriakis, “Theoretical and experimental investigation of the performance of a desiccant air-conditioning system,” Renewable Energy, vol. 35, no. 7, pp. 1368–1375, Jul. 2010, doi: 10.1016/j.renene.2009.11.011.
• G. Angrisani, F. Minichiello, C. Roselli, and M. Sasso, “Experimental analysis on the dehumidification and thermal performance of a desiccant wheel,” Applied Energy, vol. 92, pp. 563–572, Apr. 2012, doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2011.11.071.
• Juntakan Taweekun and Visit Akvanich, “The Experiment and Simulation of Solid Desiccant Dehumidification for Air-Conditioning System in a Tropical Humid Climate,” Engineering, vol. 05, no. 01, pp. 146–153, Jan. 2013, doi: 10.4236/eng.2013.51a021.
• İ. Uçkan, T. Yılmaz, E. Hürdoğan, and O. Büyükalaca, “Experimental investigation of a novel configuration of desiccant based evaporative air conditioning system,” Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 65, pp. 606–615, Jan. 2013, doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2012.09.014.
• B. Jani, M. Mishra, and P. K. Sahoo, “Performance studies of hybrid solid desiccant–vapor compression air-conditioning system for hot and humid climates,” Energy and Buildings, vol. 102, pp. 284–292, Sep. 2015, doi: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2015.05.055.
• Heidarinejad and H. Pasdarshahri, “Potential of a desiccant-evaporative cooling system performance in a multi-climate country,” International Journal of Refrigeration, vol. 34, no. 5, pp. 1251–1261, Aug. 2011, doi: 10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2011.03.008.
• M. M. S. Dezfouli, S. Mat, G. Pirasteh, K. S. M. Sahari, K. Sopian, and M. H. Ruslan, “Simulation Analysis of the Four Configurations of Solar Desiccant Cooling System Using Evaporative Cooling in Tropical Weather in Malaysia,” International Journal of Photoenergy, vol. 2014, pp. 1–14, 2014, doi: 10.1155/2014/843617.
• J. Hirunlabh, R. Charoenwat, J. Khedari, and S. Teekasap, “Feasibility study of desiccant air-conditioning system in Thailand,” Building and Environment, vol. 42, no. 2, pp. 572–577, Feb. 2007, doi: 10.1016/j.buildenv.2005.09.022.
• J. R. Camargo, E. Godoy Jr, and C. D. Ebinuma, “An evaporative and desiccant cooling system for air conditioning in humid climates,” Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering, vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 243–247, Sep. 2005, doi: 10.1590/s1678-58782005000300005.
• X. Zhou and R. Reece, “Experimental investigation for a non-adiabatic desiccant wheel with a concentric structure at low regeneration temperatures,” Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 201, Dec. 2019, Art. no. 112165, doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2019.112165.
• N. Ani, E. M. Badawi, and K. S. Kannan, “The effect of absorber packing height on the performance of a hybrid liquid desiccant system,” Renewable Energy, vol. 30, no. 15, pp. 2247–2256, Dec. 2005, doi: 10.1016/j.renene.2005.01.011.
• Y. Guo, Z. Ma, A. Al-Jubainawi, P. Cooper, and L. D. Nghiem, “Using electrodialysis for regeneration of aqueous lithium chloride solution in liquid desiccant air conditioning systems,” Energy and Buildings, vol. 116, pp. 285–295, Mar. 2016, doi: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.01.014.
• D. Pietruschka, U. Eicker, M. Huber, and J. Schumacher, “Experimental performance analysis and modelling of liquid desiccant cooling systems for air conditioning in residential buildings,” International Journal of Refrigeration, vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 110–124, Jan. 2006, doi: 10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2005.05.012.
• R. S. Das and S. Jain, “Experimental investigations on a solar assisted liquid desiccant cooling system with indirect contact dehumidifier,” Solar Energy, vol. 153, pp. 289–300, Sep. 2017, doi: 10.1016/j.solener.2017.05.071.
• Y. Chen, H. Yang, and Y. Luo, “Investigation on solar assisted liquid desiccant dehumidifier and evaporative cooling system for fresh air treatment,” Energy, vol. 143, pp. 114–127, Jan. 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2017.10.124.
• Dong, L. Lu, and T. Wen, “Investigating dehumidification performance of solar-assisted liquid desiccant dehumidifiers considering different surface properties,” Energy, vol. 164, pp. 978–994, Dec. 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2018.09.063.
• S. Alizadeh, “Performance of a solar liquid desiccant air conditioner – An experimental and theoretical approach,” Solar Energy, vol. 82, no. 6, pp. 563–572, Jun. 2008, doi: 10.1016/j.solener.2007.10.009.
• T. Katejanekarn, S. Chirarattananon, and S. Kumar, “An experimental study of a solar-regenerated liquid desiccant ventilation pre-conditioning system,” Solar Energy, vol. 83, no. 6, pp. 920–933, Jun. 2009, doi: 10.1016/j.solener.2008.12.006.
• T. Katejanekarn and S. Kumar, “Performance of a solar-regenerated liquid desiccant ventilation pre-conditioning system,” Energy and Buildings, vol. 40, no. 7, pp. 1252–1267, Jan. 2008, doi: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2007.11.005.
• N. Fumo and D. Y. Goswami, “Study of an aqueous lithium chloride desiccant system: air dehumidification and desiccant regeneration,” Solar Energy, vol. 72, no. 4, pp. 351–361, Apr. 2002, doi: 10.1016/s0038-092x(02)00013-0.
• K. Qin and G. Schmitz, “Engine-driven desiccant-assisted hybrid air-conditioning system,” in Proc. 23rd World Gas Conf., Amsterdam, Netherlands, vol. 15, 2006.
• M. Tu, C.-Q. Ren, G.-F. Tang, and Z.-S. Zhao, “Performance comparison between two novel configurations of liquid desiccant air-conditioning system,” Building and Environment, vol. 45, no. 12, pp. 2808–2816, Dec. 2010, doi: 10.1016/j.buildenv.2010.06.009.
• Guan, T. Zhang, Jùn Líu, and X. Liu, “Exergy analysis and performance improvement of liquid-desiccant deep-dehumidification system: An engineering case study,” Energy, vol. 196, Apr. 2020, Art. no. 117122, doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2020.117122.
• S. Yamaguchi, J. Jeong, K. Saito, H. Miyauchi, and M. Harada, “Hybrid liquid desiccant air-conditioning system: Experiments and simulations,” Applied Thermal Engineering, vol. 31, no. 17–18, pp. 3741–3747, Dec. 2011, doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2011.04.009.
• K. K. Ghosh et al., “Experimental investigations on indirect contact type liquid desiccant cooling systems for high latent heat load application,” Case Studies in Thermal Engineering, vol. 31, Jan. 2022, Art. no. 101814, doi: 10.1016/j.csite.2022.101814.
• H.-W. Dong, H.-J. Cho, J.-Y. Park, and J.-W. Jeong, “Optimum regeneration temperature of a desiccant solution in a packaged liquid desiccant-assisted air conditioning unit,” International Journal of Refrigeration, vol. 101, pp. 155–166, May 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2019.03.037.
• X. Jia, Y. J. Dai, J. Y. Wu, and R. Z. Wang, “Analysis on a hybrid desiccant air-conditioning system,” Applied Thermal Engineering, vol. 26, no. 17–18, pp. 2393–2400, Dec. 2006, doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2006.02.016.
• M. Tu, C.-Q. Ren, L.-A. Zhang, and J.-W. Shao, “Simulation and analysis of a novel liquid desiccant air-conditioning system,” Applied Thermal Engineering, vol. 29, no. 11, pp. 2417–2425, Aug. 2009, doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2008.12.006.
• W. Indrawan, A. Lubis, N. Nasruddin, and M. I. Alhamid, “The Experimental Study of Dehumidification and Regeneration Processes in a Fin and Tube Liquid Desiccant System,” SSRN Electronic Journal, 2022, doi: 10.2139/ssrn.4134218.
• W. Su, W. Li, B. Sun, and X. Zhang, “Experimental study and correlations for heat and mass transfer coefficients in the dehumidifier of a frost-free heat pump system,” International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 131, pp. 450–462, Mar. 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2018.11.078.
• T. Zhang, X. Liu, and Y. Jiang, “Performance optimization of heat pump driven liquid desiccant dehumidification systems,” Energy and Buildings, vol. 52, pp. 132–144, Sep. 2012, doi: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2012.06.002.
• B. Tashtoush, M. Tahat, A. Al-Hayajneh, V. A. Mazur, and D. Probert, “Thermodynamic behaviour of an air-conditioning system employing combined evaporative-water and air coolers,” Applied Energy, vol. 70, no. 4, pp. 305–319, Dec. 2001, doi: 10.1016/s0306-2619(01)00039-3.
• B. Guan, X. Liu, and T. Zhang, “Energy performance analysis on segmented liquid desiccant air-conditioning system for bus spray-paint booths,” Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 278, Jan. 2021, Art. no. 123898, doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123898.
• M. Elhelw, “Performance evaluation for solar liquid desiccant air dehumidification system,” Alexandria Engineering Journal, vol. 55, no. 2, pp. 933–940, Jun. 2016, doi: 10.1016/j.aej.2016.02.021.
• P. Tejomurthi, “Experimental analysis of solar assisted cross flow liquid desiccant cooling system,” in AIP Conf. Proc, vol. 2200, no. 1, Dec. 2019, Art. no. 020062, doi: 10.1063/1.5141232.
• B. S. Arun, V. Mariappan, and V. Maisotsenko, “Experimental study on combined low temperature regeneration of liquid desiccant and evaporative cooling by ultrasonic atomization,” International Journal of Refrigeration, vol. 112, pp. 100–109, Apr. 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2019.11.023.
• K. Kumar and A. Singh, “Economic and Experimental Assessment of KCOOH Hybrid Liquid Desiccant-Vapor Compression System,” Sustainability, vol. 14, no. 23, Nov. 2022, Art. no. 15917, doi: 10.3390/su142315917.
• F. A. Al-Sulaiman, P. Gandhidasan, and S. M. Zubair, “Liquid desiccant based two-stage evaporative cooling system using reverse osmosis (RO) process for regeneration,” Applied Thermal Engineering, vol. 27, no. 14–15, pp. 2449–2454, Oct. 2007, doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2007.02.010.
• A. Giampieri, Z. Ma, J. Ling-Chin, A. J. Smallbone, and A. P. Roskilly, “A techno-economic evaluation of low-grade excess heat recovery and liquid desiccant-based temperature and humidity control in automotive paint shops,” Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 261, Jun. 2022, Art. no. 115654, doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2022.115654.
• B. Guan, X. Liu, Q. Zhang, and T. Zhang, “Performance of a temperature and humidity independent control air-conditioning system based on liquid desiccant for industrial environments,” Energy and Buildings, vol. 214, May. 2020, Art. no. 109869, doi: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2020.109869.
• C. X. Jia, Y. J. Dai, J. Y. Wu, and R. Z. Wang, “Use of compound desiccant to develop high performance desiccant cooling system,” International Journal of Refrigeration, vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 345–353, Mar. 2007, doi: 10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2006.04.001.
• T. S. Ge, Y. J. Dai, R. Z. Wang, and Y. Li, “Experimental investigation on a one-rotor two-stage rotary desiccant cooling system,” Energy, vol. 33, no. 12, pp. 1807–1815, Dec. 2008, doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2008.08.006.
• L. M. Hu, T. S. Ge, Y. Jiang, and R. Z. Wang, “Performance study on composite desiccant material coated fin-tube heat exchangers,” International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 90, pp. 109–120, Nov. 2015, doi: 10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2015.06.033.
• T. S. Ge, F. Ziegler, R. Z. Wang, and H. Wang, “Performance comparison between a solar driven rotary desiccant cooling system and conventional vapor compression system (performance study of desiccant cooling),” Applied Thermal Engineering, vol. 30, no. 6–7, pp. 724–731, May 2010, doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2009.12.002.
• X. Zheng and R. Wang, “Microstructure and sorption performance of consolidated composites impregnated with LiCl,” International Journal of Refrigeration, vol. 98, pp. 452–458, Feb. 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2018.11.031.
• Y. Jiang, T. S. Ge, R. Z. Wang, and L. M. Hu, “Experimental investigation and analysis of composite silica-gel coated fin-tube heat exchangers,” International journal of refrigeration, vol. 51, pp. 169–179, Mar. 2015, doi: 10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2014.11.012.
• K. S. Rambhad et al., “Experimental investigation of desiccant dehumidification with four different combinations of silica gel desiccant wheel on indoor air quality,” SN Applied Sciences, vol. 5, no. 11, Oct. 2023, doi: 10.1007/s42452-023-05505-6.
• Y. Bianfeng, W. Cong, X. Ji, Y. Yuan, C. Yingxu, and N. Junneng, “Solar regenerated carbon-based composite desiccant coated heat exchangers for air dehumidification,” Energy, vol. 299, Jul. 2024, Art. no. 131537, doi: doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2024.131537.
• M. S. Büker, H. Parlamış, M. Alwetaishi, and O. Benjeddou, “Experimental investigation on the dehumidification performance of a parabolic trough solar air collector assisted rotary desiccant system,” Case Studies in Thermal Engineering, vol. 34, Jun. 2022, Art. no. 102077, doi: 10.1016/j.csite.2022.102077.
• Y. M. Liu, Z. X. Yuan, X. Wen, and C. X. Du, “Evaluation on performance of solar adsorption cooling of silica gel and SAPO-34 zeolite,” Applied Thermal Engineering, vol. 182, Jan. 2021, Art. no. 116019, doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2020.116019.
• K. M. Almohammadi and K. Harby, “Operational conditions optimization of a proposed solar-powered adsorption cooling system: Experimental, modeling, and optimization algorithm techniques,” Energy, vol. 206, Sep. 2020, Art. no. 118007, doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2020.118007.
• T. S. Ge, Y. Li, Y. J. Dai, and R. Z. Wang, “Performance investigation on a novel two-stage solar driven rotary desiccant cooling system using composite desiccant materials,” Solar Energy, vol. 84, no. 2, pp. 157–159, Feb. 2010, doi: 10.1016/j.solener.2009.12.008.
• X. Zhuo, J. Ding, X. Yang, S. Chen, and J. H. Yang, “The Experimentation System Design and Experimental Study of the Air-Conditioning by Desiccant Type Using Solar Energy,” OakTrust (Texas A&M University Libraries), Jan. 2006.
• Q. F. Chen, S. W. Du, Z. X. Yuan, T. B. Sun, and Y. X. Li, “Experimental study on performance change with time of solar adsorption refrigeration system,” Applied Thermal Engineering, vol. 138, pp. 386–393, Jun. 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2018.04.061.
• T. C. Roumpedakis et al., “Performance Results of a Solar Adsorption Cooling and Heating Unit,” Energies, vol. 13, no. 7, Apr. 2020, Art. no. 1630, doi: 10.3390/en13071630.
• X. Zheng, R. Z. Wang, and T. S. Ge, “Experimental study and performance predication of carbon based composite desiccants for desiccant coated heat exchangers,” International Journal of Refrigeration, vol. 72, pp. 124–131, Mar. 2016, doi: 10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2016.03.013.
• P. Vivekh, D. T. Bui, Y. Wong, M. Kumja, and K. J. Chua, “Performance evaluation of PVA-LiCl coated heat exchangers for next-generation of energy-efficient dehumidification,” Applied Energy, vol. 237, pp. 733–750, Mar. 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.01.018.
• P. Vivekh, M. R. Islam, and K. J. Chua, “Experimental performance evaluation of a composite superabsorbent polymer coated heat exchanger based air dehumidification system,” Applied Energy, vol. 260, Dec. 2019, Art. no. 114256, doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.114256.
• P. Vivekh, T. Bui, M. R. Islam, K. Zaw, and Kian Jon Chua, “Experimental performance and energy efficiency investigation of composite superabsorbent polymer and potassium formate coated heat exchangers,” Applied Energy, vol. 275, Oct. 2020, Art. no. 115428, doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.115428.
• K. Chen, X. Zheng, and S. N. Wang, “Investigation on activated carbon-sodium polyacrylate coated aluminum sheets for desiccant coated heat exchanger,” Energy, vol. 245, Apr. 2022, Art. no. 123206, doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2022.123206.
• X. Zheng, Y. Zhang, T. Wan, and K. Chen, “Experimental study on the performance of a novel superabsorbent polymer and activated carbon composite coated heat exchangers,” Energy, vol. 281, Oct. 2023, Art. no. 128293, doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2023.128293.
• A. Kumar and A. Yadav, “Experimental investigation of solar-powered desiccant cooling system by using composite desiccant ‘CaCl2/jute,’” Environment, Development and Sustainability, vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 1279–1292, Apr. 2016, doi: 10.1007/s10668-016-9796-5.
• Mohamed Hassan Ahmed, H. El-Ghetany, A. E. Mimet, and H. Boushaba, “Comparison of the Thermal Performance of Solar Adsorption Cooling System between Egypt and Morocco,” Applied Solar Energy, vol. 54, no. 5, pp. 361–368, Nov. 2018, doi: 10.3103/s0003701x1805002x.
• Yu, S. won Seo, F. Mikšík, K. Thu, T. Miyazaki, and K. C. Ng, “Effects of temperature and humidity ratio on the performance of desiccant dehumidification system under low-temperature regeneration,” Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, vol. 148, no. 8, pp. 3045–3058, May 2022, doi: 10.1007/s10973-022-11368-7.
• Y. Luo et al., “Dry gel conversion synthesis and performance of glass-fiber MIL-100(Fe) composite desiccant material for dehumidification,” Microporous and Mesoporous Materials, vol. 297, May 2020, Art. no. 110034, doi: 10.1016/j.micromeso.2020.110034.
• C. X. Jia, Y. J. Dai, J. Y. Wu, and R. Z. Wang, “Experimental comparison of two honeycombed desiccant wheels fabricated with silica gel and composite desiccant material,” Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 47, no. 15–16, pp. 2523–2534, Sep. 2006, doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2005.10.034.
• Z. Yang, Z. Lian, R. Tao, N. Hui, and K. Zhong, “Experimental study on the performance of the internally-heated ultrasonic atomization liquid desiccant regeneration system,” Applied Thermal Engineering, vol. 163, Dec. 2019, Art. no. 114211, doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2019.114211.
• W. Li, Y. Pan, Y. Yao, and M. Dong, “Modeling and parametric study of the ultrasonic atomization regeneration of desiccant solution,” International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 127, pp. 687–702, Dec. 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2018.07.001.
• F. Zhang, Y. Yin, and X. Zhang, “Performance analysis of a solar-driven liquid desiccant cooling system with solution storage under adjustable recirculation ratio,” Solar Energy, vol. 172, pp. 32–45, Sep. 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.solener.2018.03.061.
• C. Dong, L. Lu, L. Zhang, and L. Lu, “Performance enhancement of solar-assisted liquid desiccant dehumidifiers using super-hydrophilic surface,” Energy and Buildings, vol. 199, pp. 461–471, Sep. 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2019.07.027.
• R. Liang, Q. Pan, P. Wang, and J. Zhang, “Experiment research of solar PV/T cogeneration system on the building façade driven by a refrigerant pump,” Energy, vol. 161, pp. 744–752, Oct. 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2018.07.189.
• Y. Wang, W. Li, Q. Ji, B. Yang, S. Dai, and Y. Yin, “Performance investigation and energy-saving potential of a heat pump-driven liquid desiccant dehumidification system in different climatic conditions,” Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 325, Feb. 2025, Art. no. 119330, doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2024.119330.
• Y. Xie, T. Zhang, and X. Liu, “Performance investigation of a counter-flow heat pump driven liquid desiccant dehumidification system,” Energy, vol. 115, pp. 446–457, Nov. 2016, doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2016.09.037.
• X. Liu, Y. Xie, T. Zhang, L. Chen, and L. Cong, “Experimental investigation of a counter-flow heat pump driven liquid desiccant dehumidification system,” Energy and Buildings, vol. 179, pp. 223–238, Nov. 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2018.09.007.
• B. Su, W. Han, J. Sui, and H. Jin, “A two-stage liquid desiccant dehumidification system by the cascade utilization of low-temperature heat for industrial applications,” Applied Energy, vol. 207, pp. 643–653, Jun. 2017, doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.05.184.
• Y. Dai, F. Liu, J. Sui, D. Wang, W. Han, and H. Jin, “Hybrid liquid desiccant air-conditioning system combined with marine aerosol removal driven by low-temperature heat source,” Applied Energy, vol. 275, Oct. 2020, Art. no. 115365, doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.115365.
• M. Qasim, M. Badrelzaman, N. N. Darwish, N. A. Darwish, and N. Hilal, “Reverse osmosis desalination: A state-of-the-art review,” Desalination, vol. 459, pp. 59–104, Jun. 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.desal.2019.02.008.
• R. Pang and K. Zhang, “Fabrication of hydrophobic fluorinated silica-polyamide thin film nanocomposite reverse osmosis membranes with dramatically improved salt rejection,” Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, vol. 510, pp. 127–132, Jan. 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.jcis.2017.09.062.
• Z. Yang, K. Zhang, Y. Hwang, and Z. Lian, “Performance investigation on the ultrasonic atomization liquid desiccant regeneration system,” Applied Energy, vol. 171, pp. 12–25, Jun. 2016, doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.03.008.
• M. M. Rafique, P. Gandhidasan, and H. M. S. Bahaidarah, “Liquid desiccant materials and dehumidifiers – A review,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 56, pp. 179–195, Apr. 2016, doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2015.11.061.
• F. E. Ahmed, B. S. Lalia, R. Hashaikeh, and N. Hilal, “Alternative heating techniques in membrane distillation: A review,” Desalination, vol. 496, Dec. 2020, Art. no. 114713, doi: 10.1016/j.desal.2020.114713.
• W. Su et al., “Liquid desiccant regeneration for advanced air conditioning: A comprehensive review on desiccant materials, regenerators, systems and improvement technologies,” Applied Energy, vol. 308, Feb. 2022, Art. no. 118394, doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2021.118394.
• L. Liu, Y. Feng, and T. Ge, “Multi-stage MOF desiccant wheel for stepwise dehumidification and low temperature regeneration,” Energy, vol. 341, Dec. 2025, Art. no. 139551, doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2025.139551.
• S. Z. Shahvari, V. A. Kalkhorani, C. R. Wade, and J. D. Clark, “Benefits of metal–organic frameworks sorbents for sorbent wheels used in air conditioning systems,” Applied Thermal Engineering, vol. 210, Jun. 2022, Art. no. 118407, doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2022.118407.
• Kyung Ho Cho et al., “Rational design of a robust aluminum metal-organic framework for multi-purpose water-sorption-driven heat allocations,” Nature Communications, vol. 11, no. 1, Oct. 2020, doi: 10.1038/s41467-020-18968-7.
• Y. Feng, L. Ge, Y. Zhao, Q. Li, R. Wang, and T. Ge, “Active MOF water harvester with extraordinary productivity enabled by cooling-enhanced sorption,” Energy and Environmental Science, vol. 17, no. 3, Jan. 2024, doi: 10.1039/d3ee03134a.
• M. I. Severino, E. Gkaniatsou, F. Nouar, M. L. Pinto, and C. Serre, “MOFs industrialization: a complete assessment of production costs,” Faraday Discussions, vol. 231, pp. 326–341, 2021, doi: 10.1039/d1fd00018g.
• F. Comino, P. E. Romero, E. Molero, and M. Ruiz, “Experimental evaluation of a 3D printed air dehumidification system developed with green desiccant materials,” Applied Thermal Engineering, vol. 227, Mar. 2023, Art. no. 120393, doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2023.120393.