‘Historical Mistake’ and the USA - China Global Rivalry: The South China Sea Dispute

Abstract

China has been facing various border disputes with the neighboring countries in the Far East. Among them is the “South China Sea Dispute” which has become the leading dispute of the region in recent years whereby China’s acts with a sovereignty claim on the South China Sea Islands and the borders in the surrounding area led to the participation of neighboring states into the conflict. It is understood that the South China Sea dispute is becoming a predominant issue not only on a regional scale but also a power struggle between the USA and China in that it is a multidimensional problem with its geopolitical- geostrategic, legal, and military pillars. The aim of this research explain the multilayered features of the South China Sea dispute with the rivalry between the USA and China in the background.

Keywords

• South China Sea
• Geostrategy
• Power Struggle
• China
• United State of America

References

1. Arıboğan, Deniz Ülke. Duvar. İstanbul: İnkılap, 2017.
2. Arrighi, Giovanni. Adam Smith in Beijing: Lineages of the Twenty-First Century. London & New York: Verso, 2007.
3. Arrighi, Giovanni, et al. “Historical capitalism, East and West” in The Resurgence of East Asia: 500, 150 and 50-year perspectives, edited by Giovanni Arrighi, Takeshi Hamashita, Mark Selden, 259-333. London: Routledge Curzon, 2003.
4. Axe, David. “Can China Build 76 Submarines in 10 Years?” National Interest, 23.10.2020, https://nationalinterest.org/blog/reboot/can-china-build-76-submarines-10-years-171291 (20.11.2022).
5. Bose, Nandita, Jeff Mason, Steve Holland. “India's Modi starts Washington visit to build Biden, US ties”. Reuters, 22.06.2023, https://www.reuters.com/world/biden-will-not-lecture-modi-human-rights-white-house-says-2023-06-21/ (23.08.2023).
6. Brands, Hal, John Lewis Gaddis. “America, China and the Echoes of History”. Foreign Affairs 100, Sy. 6 (2021): 10-20.
7. Broderick, K. Chinese Activities in the South China Sea: Implications for the American Pivot to Asia. Project 2049 Institute, 2015.
8. Bull, Hedley, Benedict Kingsbury, Adam Roberts. Hugo Grotius and International Relations. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.

9. Caceres, Sigfrido Burgos. China’s Strategic Interests in the South China Sea: Power and Resources. New York: Routledge, 2014.
10. Campbell, Charlie. “The Future Is Already Here: Quantum computers that work exponentially faster are changing everything, including digital security”. Time 201, Sy. 5-6 (2023): 46-53.
11. “China's first aircraft carrier enters service”. BBC News, 25.09.2012, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-19710040 ( 02.11.2022).
12. “China Island Tracker”. Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative, https://amti.csis.org/island-tracker/china/ (28.08.2022).
13. “Chinese Navy Type 002 Shandong aircraft carrier continues to strengthen the research of tactics and training methods”. Navy Recognition, 29.10.2020, https://www.navyrecognition.com/index.php/naval-news/naval-news-archive/2020/october/9206-chinese-navy-type-002-shandong-aircraft-carrier-continues-to-strengthen-the-research-of-tactics-and-training-methods.html (02.11.2022).
14. Dian, Matto and Silvia Menegazzi. New Regional Initiatives in China’s Foreign Policy: The Incoming Pluralism of Global Governance. Switzerland: Palgrave & Macmillan, 2018.
15. Dorel, Gerard. Atlas de l’Empire Américain, Atlas/Monde: Autrement, 2006.
16. Dorsey, James. China and the Middle East: Venturing into the Maelstrom. Switzerland: Palgrave & Macmillan, 2018.
17. Drummond, Michael. “What is the AUKUS submarines pact between the UK, US and Australia - and why does China think it's 'highly irresponsible'?”, Sky News, 14.03.2023, https://news.sky.com/story/what-is-the-aukus-submarines-pact-between-the-uk-us-and-australia-and-why-does-china-think-its-highly-irresponsible-12833464/ (17.03.2023).
18. Dugin, Alexander. “DUGIN: The End Of Atlanticism And The Rise Of The Heartlands” (14.03.2019). Fort-russ.com, https://fort-russ.com/2019/03/dugin-the-end-of-atlanticism-and-the-rise-of-the-heartlands/ (10.11.2022).
19. Feldman, Noah. Cool War: The United States, China and the Future of Global Competition. New York: Random House, 2015.
20. Fels, Enrico and Truong-Minh Vu. Power Politics in Asia’s Contested Waters: Territorial Disputes in the South China Sea. Switzerland: Springer, 2016.
21. Freund, Eleanor. “Freedom of Navigation in the South China Sea: A Practical Guide”, Asian Maritime Transparency Initiative [AMTI], 10.08.2017, https://amti.csis.org/freedom-of-navigation-practical-guide/ (20.08.2023).
22. Gady, Franz-Stefan. “China’s Navy Showcases New Type 055 Guided Missile Destroyer in Naval Parade: A naval parade to honor the 70th anniversary of the creation of the Chinese Navy included the service’s latest destroyer class.”, The Diplomat, 25.04.2019, https://thediplomat.com/2019/04/chinas-navy-showcases-new-type-055-guided-missile-destroyer-in-naval-parade/ (02.11.2022).
23. Garcia, Zenel. China’s Military Modernization, Japan’s Normalization, and the South China Sea Territorial Disputes. Switzerland: Palgrave Pivot, 2019.
24. George, Mary. “Maritime Security and Demilitarisation of the South China Sea” in Routledge Handbook of the South China Sea, edited by Keyuan Zou, 65-88. New York: Routledge, 2021.
25. Glaser, B. S. “The Growing Militarisation of the South China Sea”, The Interpreter, 29.07.2015, http://www.lowyinterpreter.org/post/2015/07/29/The-growingmilitarisation-of-the-South-China-Sea.aspx/ (05.11.2022).
26. Graham, Allison. “Obama and Xi Must Think Broadly to Avoid a Classic Trap”, The New York Times, 06.06.2013, https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/07/opinion/obama-and-xi-must-think-broadly-to-avoid-a-classic-trap.html (16.11.2022).
27. Hamzah, Ba. “Malaysia and South China Sea Disputes: Applicability of International Law” in Routledge Handbook of the South China Sea, edited by Keyuan Zou, 184-198. New York: Routledge, 2021.
28. Hayton, Bill. The South China Sea: The Struggle for Power in Asia. Great Britain: Yale University Press, 2014.
29. Heydarian, Richard Javad. “China’s ‘new’ map aims to extend South China Claims”, Asia Times, 29.04.2018, https://asiatimes.com/2018/04/for-weekend-chinas-new-map-aims-to-extend-south-china-sea-claims/ (18.04.2022).
30. Holmes, James R. “The Long, Strange Trip of China’s First Aircraft Carrier”, Foreign Policy, 03.02.2015, https://foreignpolicy.com/2015/02/03/the-long-strange-trip-of-chinas-first-aircraft-carrier-liaoning/ (02.11.2022).
31. Huang, Jim, and Andrew Billo. Territorial Disputes in the South China Sea: Navigating Rough Waters. New York: Palgrave & Macmillan, 2015.
32. Hughes, J. H. “China’s Place in Today’s World”. The Journal of Social, Political, and Economic Studies 35, Sy. 2 (2010): 167–223.
33. “Implementing NATO’s Strategic Concept on China”. Atlantic Council, 02.02.2023, https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/in-depth-research-reports/report/implementing-natos-strategic-concept-on-china/#h-iv-implementing-nato-s-china-policy (17.08.2023).
34. Kaplan, Robert. Asia’s Cauldron: The South China Sea and the End of a Stable Pacific. New York: Random House, 2014.
35. Kaplan, Robert. Coming Anarchy: Shattering the Dreams of Post Cold War. New York: Random House, 2000.
36. Kaplow, Jeffrey. “NPT’S Naval Nuclear Propulsion Loophole” in Nuclear Rules, Not Just Rights: The NPT Reexamined, edited by Henry Sokolski, 123-153. Arlington: Nonproliferation Policy Education Center, 2017.
37. Kasım, Kamer. “Güney Çin Denizi’nde ÇHÇ-ABD Rekabeti”, Türk Asya Stratejik Araştırmalar Merkezi (TASAM), 30 May 2018, https://tasam.org/trTR/Icerik/50253/guney_cin_denizinde_chc-abd_rekabeti/ (03.11.2022).
38. Kissinger, Henry. World Order. Great Britain: Penguin Books, 2015.
39. Kissinger, Henry. On China. New York: Penguin Books, 2012.
40. Ku, Julian and Chris Mirasola. “The South China Sea and China's "Four Sha" Claim: New Legal Theory, Same Bad Argument”, Lawfare, 25.09.2017, https://www.lawfareblog.com/south-china-sea-and-chinas-four-sha-claim-new-legal-theory-same-bad-argument (06.11.2022).
41. LaFond, Eugene. “South China Sea”, Britannica.com, https://www.britannica.com/place/South-China-Sea/ (02.11.2022).
42. LaGrone, Sam. “7th Fleet CO: Deployed LCS USS Gabrielle Giffords ‘Pretty Much Owned’ South China Sea”, U.S. Naval Institute (USNI), 27.05.2021, https://news.usni.org/2021/05/27/7th-fleet-co-deployed-lcs-uss-gabrielle-giffords-pretty-much-owned-south-china-sea/ (03.10.2022).
43. LaGrone, Sam. AUKUS Text, DocumentCloud, https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/21116075-2-aukus-treaty-text (17.03.2023).
44. Lau, Stuart and Barbara Moens, “EU to launch Global Gateway projects, challenging China’s Belt and Road”, Politico, 20.12.2022, https://www.politico.eu/article/global-gateway-european-union-launch-china-belt-and-road/ (17.08.2023).
45. “Leading export countries worldwide in 2020”. Statista, https://www.statista.com/statistics/264623/leading-export-countries-worldwide/ (02.10.2022).
46. Mastro, Oriana Skylar. “How China is bending the rules in the South China Sea”, 17.02.2021, The Interpreter | Lowy Institute, https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/how-china-bending-rules-south-china-sea (26.08.2023).
47. Mearsheimer, John. “The Inevitable Rivalry: America, China and the Tragedy of Great-Power Politics”. Foreign Affairs 100, Sy. 6 (2021): 48-58.
48. Mearsheimer, John. The Tragedy of Great Power Politics. New York: Norton & Company, 2001.
49. Mongilio, Heather. “China Protests U.S. South China Sea Freedom of Navigation Operation”, U.S. Naval Institute (USNI), 24.03.2023, https://news.usni.org/2023/03/24/china-protests-u-s-south-china-sea-freedom-of-navigation-operation (20.08.2023).
50. Mullainathan, Sendhil, and Eldar Shafir. Scarcity: Why Having Too Little Means So Much. New York: Times Books, 2013.
51. “NATO Strategic Concepts”. North Atlantic Treaty Organization, 18.07.2022, https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_56626.htm (22.07.2022).
52. Ohff, Hans. “Nuclear versus diesel-electric: the case for conventional submarines for the RAN”, “The Strategist” from Australian Strategic Policy Institute [ASPI], 11.07.2017, https://www.aspistrategist.org.au/nuclear-versus-diesel-electric-case-conventional-submarines-ran/ (15.11.2022).
53. Oktay, Fatih (2017). Çin: Yeni Büyük Güç ve Değişen Dünya Dengeleri. İstanbul: Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, 2017.
54. Organski, Abramo Fimo Kenneth. World Politics. New York: Alfred and Knopf, 1968.
55. Pekcan, Cemre. “Güney Çin Denizi Sorunu Çerçevesinde Çin-Hindistan İlişkileri”. ÇOMÜ Uluslararası Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi 1, Sy. 1 (2016): 19-32.
56. Raditio, Klaus Heinrich. Understanding China’s Behaviour in the South China Sea. Singapore: Palgrave & Macmillan, 2019.
57. Richter, Felix. “These are the top 10 manufacturing countries in the World”, World Economic Forum (WEF), https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/02/countries-manufacturing-trade-exports-economics/ (04.11.2022).
58. Ryan, Julian. “Japan and Britain send ‘symbolic message’ to China with joint naval drills near disputed islands”, 26.08.2021, https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/politics/article/3146466/japan-and-britain-send-symbolic-message-china-joint-naval-drills (15.11.2022).
59. Scarr, Simon, Wen Foo, Jin Wu. “South China Sea Ruling”, Reuters Graphics, http://fingfx.thomsonreuters.com/gfx/rngs/SOUTHCHINASEA-RULING/010020QR1SG/index.html (26.08.2023).
60. Schofield, Clive. “Competing Maritime Claims and Enduring Disputes in the South China Sea” in Routledge Handbook of the South China Sea, edited by Keyuan Zou, 104-122. New York: Routledge, 2021.
61. Shih, Gerry. “China’s third aircraft carrier takes shape, with ambitions to challenge U.S. naval dominance”, The Washington Post, 16.09.2020, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/chinas-third-aircraft-carrier-takes-shape-with-ambitions-to-challenge-us-naval-dominance/2020/09/16/d1068f8c-f674-11ea-85f7-5941188a98cd_story.html (02.11.2022).
62. Smith, Jeff. “Biden Must Keep Challenging China on Freedom of Navigation”, Foreign Policy,16.02.2021, https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/02/16/biden-south-china-sea-spratlys/#:~:text=Based%20on%20publicly%20available%20information,higher%20than%20those%20publicly%20reported (19.08.2023).
63. Snider, Ted. “What the AUKUS sub ruckus means for regional security”, Responsible Statecraft, 17.03.2023, https://responsiblestatecraft.org/2023/03/17/what-the-aukus-sub-ruckus-means-for-regional-security/#:~:text=One%20day%20after%20the%20AUKUS,and%20purpose%20of%20the%20NPT.%E2%80%9D (29.03.2023).
64. “South China Sea”. Lowy Institute, https://www.lowyinstitute.org/issues/south-china-sea/ (05.11.2022).
65. “South China Sea Dispute: UPSC International Relations Notes”. Byju’s, https://byjus.com/free-ias-prep/south-china-sea-dispute/ (05.11.2022).
66. “STATISTA: Military expenditure as percentage of gross domestic product (GDP) in highest spending countries 2019”, https://www.statista.com/statistics/266892/military-expenditure-as-percentage-of-gdp-in-highest-spending-countries/ (06.11.2022).
67. “STATISTA: The Countries with the Biggest Military Budgets”, https://www.statista.com/chart/9100/the-top-15-countries-for-military-expenditure-in-2016/ (05.11.2022).
68. Stavridis, James. Sea Power: The History and Geopolitics of the World Oceans. New York: Penguin Press, 2017.
69. “Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) Military Expenditure Database: Data for All Countries 1949 – 2019”, (Excel Spreadsheet), https://www.sipri.org/databases/milex/ (06.11.2022).
70. Sutton, H. I. “Chinese Increasing Nuclear Submarine Shipyard Capacity”, USNI News, U.S. Naval Institute [USNI], 12.10.2020, https://news.usni.org/2020/10/12/chinese-increasing-nuclear-submarine-shipyard-capacity (20.11.2022).
71. Tanaka, Yoshifumi. The South China Sea Arbitration: Toward an International Legal Order in the Oceans. London: Hart Publishing, 2019.
72. “The AUKUS pact is a model for Western allies”. The Economist, 16.03.2023, https://www.economist.com/leaders/2023/03/16/the-aukus-pact-is-a-model-for-western-allies/ (17.03.2023).
73. “The South China Sea Arbitration (The Republic of Philippines v.The People's Republic of China)”. Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA), https://pca-cpa.org/en/cases/7/ (02.11.2022).
74. “The South Chına Sea Arbitration (The Republic Of The Phılıppınes V. The People’s Republic Of China)”. Permanent Court of Arbitration, Press Release: 12 June 2016, s.1-2, https://pca-cpa.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/175/2016/07/PH-CN-20160712-Press-Release-No-11-English.pdf (02.11.2022).
75. “Top 10 Countries With Most Submarines (2023)”. The Maritime Post, 04.01.2023, https://themaritimepost.com/2023/01/top-10-countries-with-most-submarines-2023/ (10.01.2023).
76. “US debt to China how much does it Own”. The Balance, https://www.thebalance.com/u-s-debt-to-china-how-much-does-it-own-3306355/ (06.11.2022).
77. “US, UK aircraft carriers lead show of naval might around the South China Sea”. Radio Free Asia, 07.10.2021, https://www.rfa.org/english/news/china/usa-uk-southchinasea-10072021172517.html (16.11.2022).
78. Üngör, Çağdaş. “Çin ve Ortadoğu: Geleceğin Küresel Gücü Bölgeye Nasıl Bakıyor?” in Küresel ve Bölgesel Güçlerin Ortadoğu Politikaları, edited by Tarık Oğuzlu ve Ceyhun Çiçekçi, 83-99. Ankara: Nobel, 2019.
79. “Varyag artık uçak gemisi”. NTV, 25.09.2012, https://www.ntv.com.tr/galeri/dunya/varyag-artik-ucak-gemisi,jdZKOhVzs0605wthLKD7kw/OTtVi6JaLEuFdzXKs_63RA/ (02.11.2022).
80. Von Hippel, Frank. “Mitigating the Threat of Nuclear-Weapon Proliferation via Nuclear-Submarine Programs”. Journal for Peace and Nuclear Disarmament 2, Sy. 1 (2019): 133-150.
81. Walker, Michael, and Austin Krusz. “There's a Case for Diesels”, U.S. Naval Institute [USNI], June 2018, https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/2018/june/theres-case-diesels#:~:text=The%20nuclear%20reactor%20on%20board,few%20hours%20at%20top%20speed (10.01.2023).
82. Waltz, Kenneth. “The Emerging Structure of International Politics”. International Security 18, Sy. 2 (1993): 44-79.
83. Waltz, Kenneth. “The New World Order”. Millenium 2, Sy. 2, (1993): 187-195.
84. White, Hugh. “Power Shift. Australia’s future between Washington and Beijing”, Quarterly Essay, Vol. 39, No. 2, 2010, www.quarterlyessay.com/issue/power-shift-australia%E2%80%99s-future-between-washington-and-beijing/ (03.11.2022).
85. Xuanzun, Liu. “China’s 3rd aircraft carrier Fujian ‘makes smooth progress’ in mooring trials ahead of expected maiden voyage”, Global Times, 13.03.2023, https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202303/1287212.shtml (21.04.2023).
86. Yaycı, Cihat. Sorular ve Cevaplar ile Münhasır Ekonomik Bölge (MEB) Kavramı. Istanbul: Deniz Basımevi Müdürlüğü, 2019.
87. Zou, Keyuan. Routledge Handbook of the South China Sea. New York: Routledge, 2021.
88. Zou, Keyuan, and Qiang Ye. “The U-Shaped Line and Its Legal Implications” in Routledge Handbook of the South China Sea, edited by Keyuan Zou, 123-145. New York: Routledge, 2021.