Identification of Infectious Diseases that Have the Potential to Cause Epidemics After an Earthquake

Abstract

Objective: In study was aimed to determine the infectious diseases that have the potential to cause epidemics after the earthquake. Material and Method: In this research, which is a systematic evaluation, 20 studies that determined the incidence of infectious diseases after the earthquake on February 28, 2023 and before were used as data sources. Descriptive statistics were given as number of units, percentage, mean ± standard deviation. Comparisons of dependent twogroup variables were made using the Wilcoxon test. A p value of <0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results: 60% of the studies were cohort retrospective, 30% were cohort prospective; 40% was to present data on pre- and post-earthquake data. The studies were about the earthquakes with a magnitude of 7.90±1.41 Richter scale that occurred between 1980 and 2016. The mean incidence of infectious diseases was 15.47±22.94 before the earthquake and 1465.29±3379.69 after the earthquake. The increase in the mean incidence rates after the earthquake was significant (p<0.05). In general, in addition to respiratory system (acute respiratory tract infection, pneumonia, tuberculous diphtheria and valley fever), gastrointestinal system (acute gastroenteritis, viral hepatitis), and vector-borne infectious diseases (malaria, leishmaniasis, zika virus and Japanese-encephalitis), tetanus was among the infectious diseases with the potential to cause an epidemic after an earthquake. Based on the earthquakes that took place between 2001 and 2020, the postearthquake incidence means in the vector-borne infectious diseases subgroup categories in Asia were significantly higher than before the earthquake (p<0.05). Conclusion: This study showed an increase in the incidence of infectious diseases after earthquakes. It would be beneficial for institutions to develop viable, effective strategies that include providing emergency health services, adequate shelter, food supply, clean drinking and utility water, and reliable health systems in the post-earthquake period

Keywords

• Earthquake
• disaster
• infection
• contagious
• incidence.

Deprem Sonrası Salgın Oluşturma Potansiyeline Sahip Enfeksiyon Hastalıklarının Belirlenmesi

Abstract

Amaç: Çalışmada deprem sonrası salgın oluşturma potansiyeline sahip enfeksiyon hastalıklarının belirlenmesi amaçlandı. Gereç ve Yöntem: Sistematik bir değerlendirme olan bu araştırmada veri kaynağı olarak, 28 Şubat 2023 ve öncesinde, deprem sonrasında enfeksiyon hastalıklarının insidansını belirleyen 20 adet araştırma kullanıldı. Tanımlayıcı istatistikler birim sayısı, yüzde, ortalama ± standart sapma değerleri olarak verildi. Bağımlı iki gruplu değişkenlerin karşılaştırmaları Wilcoxon testi ile yapıldı. p<0,05 değeri istatistiksel olarak önemli kabul edildi. Bulgular: Araştırmaların %60’ı kohort retrospektif, %30’u kohort prospektif; %40’ı deprem öncesi ve deprem sonrasına ilişkin veri sunmakta idi. Araştırmalar 1980 ile 2016 yılları arasında gerçekleşen 7,90±1,41 Richter büyüklüğündeki depremlerle ilgili idi. Enfeksiyon hastalıkları insidans ortalamaları deprem öncesinde 15,47±22,94, deprem sonrasında ise 1465,29±3379,69. Deprem sonrasındaki insidans ortalamalarındaki artış anlamlı düzeyde idi (p<0,05). Genel olarak, solunum sistemi (akut solunum yolu enfeksiyonu, pnömoni, tüberküloz difteri ve vadi ateşi), gastrointestinal sistem (akut gastroenterit, viral hepatitler), vektör kaynaklı (sıtma, leishmaniyazis, zika virüsü ve japon-ensefaliti) enfeksiyon hastalıklarına ek olarak, tetanoz deprem sonrasında salgın yapma potansiyeli bulunan enfeksiyon hastalıkları arasında idi. 2001 ve 2020 yılları arasında gerçekleşen depremler temel alındığında, Asya kıtasında, vektör kaynaklı enfeksiyon hastalıkları alt grup kategorilerinde deprem sonrası insidans ortalamaları deprem öncesine kıyasla belirgin düzeyde fazla idi (p<0,05). Sonuç: Bu çalışma, depremlerden sonra enfeksiyon hastalıkları insidansında artış olduğunu gösterdi. Kurumların deprem sonrasında dönemde acil sağlık hizmetleri, yeterli barınak, gıda kaynağı, temiz içme ve kullanma suyu ve güvenilir sağlık sistemleri sağlamayı içeren uygulanabilir, etkili stratejiler geliştirmesi faydalı olacaktır

Keywords

• Deprem
• afet
• enfeksiyon
• bulaşıcı
• insidans.

References

1. Leith A, Sharpe JA. Deep-Focus earthquakes and their geological significance. J Geol. 1936;44(8):877e917.
2. Kessler RC, Sonnega A, Bromet E, Hughes M, Nelson CB. Posttraumatic stress disorder in the national comorbidity survey. Arch Gen Psychiatr 1995;52(12): 1048e60.
3. Kınıklı S, Cesur S. (2020). Afetlerde enfeksiyon kontrol önlemleri. Uluslararası Modern Sağlık Bilimleri Dergisi. 2020;1(1):15-23.
4. Charnley GE, Kelman I, Gaythorpe KA, Murray KA. Traits and risk factors of post-disaster infectious disease outbreaks: A systematic review. Scientific reports. 2021;11(1):1-14.
5. Suk JE, Vaughan EC, Cook RG, Semenza JC. Natural disasters and infectious disease in Europe: A literature review to identify cascading risk pathways. European journal of public health. 2020;30(5):928-935.
6. Watson JT, Gayer M, Connolly MA. Epidemics after natural disasters. Emerg Infect Dis.2007;13(1):1-5.
7. Bompangue D, Giraudoux P, Piarroux M, Mutombo G, Shamavu R, Sudre B., Mutombo A, Mondonge V, Piarroux, R. Cholera epidemics, war and disasters around Goma and Lake Kivu: An eight-year survey. PLoS neglected tropical diseases. 2009;3(5):e436.
8. Walton DA, Ivers LC. Responding to cholera in post-earthquake Haiti. New Engl J Med. 2011;364:3–5.

9. Al-shere TA, Ujiie M, Suzuki M, Salva E, Belo MCP, Koizumi N, Yoshimatsu K, Schmidt WP, Marte S, Dimaano EM, Villarama JB, Ariyoshi K. Outbreak of leptospirosis after flood, the Philippines, 2009. Emerging infectious diseases. 2012;18(1):91.
10. Floret N, Viel JF, Mauny F, Hoen B, Piarroux R. Negligible risk for epidemics after geophysical disasters. Emerg Infect Dis .2006;12(4):543e8.
11. Petrazzi L, Striuli R, Polidoro L, Petrarca M, Scipioni R, Struglia M, Giorgini P, Necozione S, Festuccia V, Ferri C. Causes of hospitalisation before and after the 2009 L’Aquila earthquake. Intern Med J. 2013;43(9):1031-1034.
12. Kouadio IK, Aljunid S, Kamigaki T, Hammad K, Oshitani H. Infectious diseases following natural disasters: Prevention and control measures. Expert Rev Anti- infect Ther. 2012;10(1):95e104.
13. Benedict K, Park BJ. Invasive fungal infections after natural disasters. Emerg Infect Dis. 2014;20(3):349e55.
14. Peterson J, Welch V, Losos M, Tugwell P. The Newcastle-Ottawa scale (NOS) for assessing the quality ofnonrandomised studies in metaanalyses. Ottawa: Ottawa Hospital Research Institute; 2011;1e12.
15. Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Cumhurbaşkanlığı Strateji ve Bütçe Başkanlığı, 2023 Kahramanmaraş ve Hatay depremleri raporu. Mart 2023. https:// www.sbb.gov.tr/2023-kahramanmaras-ve-hatay-depremleri-raporu/, Erişim tarihi: 06.04.2023.
16. Najafi S, Rezayat AA, Beyzaei SF, Shahriari Z, Nour M G, Mosaed R, Khadem-Rezaiyan M, Farahani RH. Incidence of infectious diseases after earthquakes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Public Health. 2022; 202:131-138.
17. Mavrouli M, Mavroulis S, Lekkas E, Tsakris A. The impact of earthquakes on public health: A narrative review of infectious diseases in the postdisaster period aiming to disaster risk reduction. Microorganisms. 2023;11(2):419.
18. Alexander D. Disease epidemiology and earthquake disaster: The example of Southern Italy after the 23 November 1980 earthquake. Soc Sci Med. 1982;16(22):1959e69.
19. Sáenz R, Bissell RA, Paniagua F. Post-disaster malaria in Costa Rica. Prehospital and Disaster Medicine. 1995;10(3):154-160.
20. Schneider E, Hajjeh RA, Spiegel RA, Jibson RW, Harp EL, Marshall GA, Gunn RA, McNeil MM, Pinner RW, Baron RC, Burger RC. A coccidioidomycosis outbreak following the Northridge, Calif, earthquake. JAMA.1997; 277(11):904e8.
21. Matsuoka T, Yoshioka T, Oda J, Tanaka H, Kuwagata Y, Sugimoto H, Sugimoto T. The impact of a catastrophic earthquake on morbidity rates for various ill- nesses. Public Health. 2000;114(4):249e53.
22. Fakoorziba M, Baseri A, Eghbal F, Rezaee S, Azizi K, Moemenbellah- Fard M. Post-earthquake outbreak of cutaneous leishmaniasis in a rural region of southern Iran. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 2011;105(3):217e24.
23. Sharifi I, Poursmaelian S, Aflatoonian MR, Ardakani RF, Mirzaei M, Fekri AR, Khamesipour A, Parizi MH, Harandi MF. Emergence of a new focus of anthroponotic cutaneous leishmaniasis due to Leishmania tropica in rural communities of Bam district after the earth- quake, Iran. Trop Med Int Health. 2011;16(4):510e3.
24. Jonaidi Jafari N, Radfar MH, Ghofrani H. Incidence of infectious diseases one month after the bam eartquake (2004). J Med Sci. 2007;7(4):597e602.
25. Karmakar S, Rathore AS, Kadri SM, Dutt S, Khare S, Lal S. Postearthquake outbreak of rotavirus gastroenteritis in Kashmir (India): An epidemiological analysis. Public Health 2008;122(10):981e9.
26. Furusawa T, Furusawa H, Eddie R, Tuni M, Pitakaka F, Aswani S. Communicable and non-communicable diseases in the Solomon Islands villages during re-covery from a massive earthquake in April 2007. NZ Med J. 2011;124(1333):17e28.
27. Zhang S, Lu Z, Liu H, Xiao X, Zhao Z, Bao G, Han J, Jing T, Chen G. Incidence of Japanese en- cephalitis, visceral leishmaniasis and malaria before and after the Wenchuan earthquake, in China. Acta Trop. 2013;128(1):85e9.
28. Townes D, Existe A, Boncy J, Magloire R, Vely J-F, Amsalu R, Tavernier MD, Muigai J, Hoibak S, Albert M, McMorrow M, Slutsker L, Kachur PS, Chang M. Malaria survey in post-earthquake Haitid 2010. Am J Trop Med Hyg .2012;86(1):29e31.
29. Pérez-Martín JJ, Romera Guirado FJ, Molina-Salas Y, Bernal-González PJ, Navarro-Alonso JA. Vaccination campaign at a temporary camp for victims of the earthquake in Lorca (Spain). Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics. 2017;13(7):1714-1721.
30. Daito H, Suzuki M, Shiihara J, Kilgore PE, Ohtomo H, Morimoto K, Ishida M, Kamigaki T, Oshitani H, Hashizume M, Endo W, Hagiwara K, Ariyoshi K, Okinaga S. Impact of the Tohoku earthquake and tsunami on pneumonia hospitalisations and mortality among adults in northern Miyagi, Japan: a multicentre observational study. Thorax. 2013;68(6):544e50.
31. Aoyagi T, Yamada M, Kunishima H, Tokuda K, Yano H, Ishibashi N, Hatta M, Endo S, Arai K, Inomata S, Gu Y, Kanamori H, Kitagawa M, Hirakata Y, Kaku M. Characteristics of infectious diseases in hospitalized patients during the early phase after the 2011 great East Japan earthquake: pneumonia as a significant reason for hospital care. Chest. 2013;143(2):349e56.
32. Kawano T, Hasegawa K, Watase H, Morita H, Yamamura O. Infectious disease frequency among evacuees at shelters after the great eastern Japan earthquake and tsunami: a retrospective study. Disaster Med Public Health Prep.2014;8(1): 58e64.
33. Kamigaki T, Seino J, Tohma K, Nukiwa-Soma N, Otani K, Oshitani H. Investi- gation of an Influenza A (H3N2) outbreak in evacuation centres following the Great East Japan earthquake, 2011. BMC Publ Health. 2014;14(1):34.
34. Tohma K, Suzuki A, Otani K, Okamoto M, Nukiwa N, Kamigaki T, Kawamura K, Nakagawa H, Oshitani H. Monitoring of influenza viruses in the aftermath of the Great East Japan earthquake. Japanese J Infect Dis. 2012;65(6):542e4.
35. Kawano T, Tsugawa Y, Nishiyama K, Morita H, Yamamura O, Hasegawa K. Shelter crowding and increased incidence of acute respiratory infection in evacuees following the Great Eastern Japan Earthquake and tsunami. Epidemiol Infect. 2016;144(4):787e95.
36. Ortiz MR, Le NK, Sharma V, Hoare I, Quizhpe E, Teran E, Naik E, Salihu HM, Izurieta R. Post-earthquake Zika virus surge: Disaster and public health threat amid climatic conduciveness. Sci Rep. 2017;;7(1):1e0.
37. Vasquez D, Palacio A, Nu~nez J, Briones W, Beier JC, Pareja DC, Tamariz L. Impact of the 2016 Ecuador earthquake on Zika virus cases. Am J Publ Health. 2017;107(7):1137e42.
38. Dai J, Zhang DM, Lu HJ. Preventive strategies for communicable diseases after earthquakes. Journal of Sun Yat-Sen University (Medical Sciences).2008;29(5): 506-511.
39. Vahaboglu H, Gundes S, Karadenizli A, Mutlu B, Cetin S, Kolayli F, Coskunkan F, Dündar V. Transient increase in diarrheal diseases after the devastating earthquake in Kocaeli, Turkey: results of an infectious disease surveillance study. Clinical infectious diseases. 2000;31(6):1386- 1389.
40. Sencan I, Sahin I, Kaya D, Oksuz S, Yildirim M. Assessment of HAV and HEV seroprevalence in children living in post-earthquake camps from Düzce, Turkey. European journal of epidemiology. 2004: 461-465.
41. Kaya AD, Ozturk CE, Yavuz T, Ozaydin C, Bahcebasi T. Changing patterns of hepatitis A and E sero‐prevalences in children after the 1999 earthquakes in Duzce, Turkey. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health.2008;44(4):205-207.
42. Nigro G, Bottone G, Maiorani D, Trombatore F, Falasca S, Bruno G. Pediatric epidemic of Salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium in the area of L’Aquila, Italy, four years after a catastrophic earthquake. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2016;13(5):475.
43. Howard MJ, Brillman JC, Burkle Jr FM. Infectious disease emergencies in disasters. Emerg Med Clin North Am. 1996;14(2):413-428.
44. Moszynski P. Disease threatens millions in wake of tsunami. BMJ. 2005;330(7482):59.
45. Feng J, Xia Z, Zhang L, Cheng S, Wang R. Risk assessment of malaria prevalence in Ludian, Yongshan, and Jinggu counties, Yunnan province, after 2014 earth- quake disaster. Am J Trop Med Hyg .2016;94(3):674e8.
46. Aceh Epidemiology Group. Outbreak of tetanus cases following the tsunami in Aceh Province, Indonesia. Global Public Health. 2006;1(2):173-177.
47. Sutiono AB, Qiantori A, Suwa H, Ohta T. Characteristic tetanus infection in disaster-affected areas: Case study of the Yogyakarta earthquakes in Indonesia. BMC Research Notes. 2009;2(1):1-7.