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The Impact of Education and Health Expenditures on Economic Growth in Fragile Five Economies

Year 2025, Volume: 14 Issue: 1, 354 - 369, 30.06.2025
https://doi.org/10.54282/inijoss.1676008

Abstract

Due to the failure of the neoclassical convergence hypothesis in explaining economic growth, endogenous growth models have turned to alternative macroeconomic parameters. Among these alternative parameters, increasing education and health expenditures aims to enhance societal welfare and total factor productivity. This study examines the effect of education and health expenditures on economic growth in the Fragile Five economies during the period 2004–2021. All three variables exhibit cross-sectional dependence and contain unit roots at their level values. In the short run, a bidirectional causality is observed between education/health expenditures and economic growth, along with a unidirectional causality running from education expenditures to health expenditures. According to the error correction coefficients, the effect of health expenditures on growth emerges in the long run and is less influenced by output cycles. At the country level, causality from health expenditures to output is found only in South Africa, while causality from education expenditures to output is observed in Brazil and South Africa. Finally, there is no evidence of causality from output to health expenditures in any of the economies, whereas causality from output to education expenditures is found only in Turkey. Therefore, it is concluded that in Brazil, public expenditures focus on social transfers; in South Africa, historical inequalities and public health spending have translated into human capital productivity; in India and Indonesia, the efficiency of expenditures directed toward quasi-public goods remains low. In Turkey, findings indicate that economic prosperity does not directly translate into increased investment in education.

References

  • Acemoğlu, D., & Robinson, J. A. (2012). Why nations fail: The origins of power, prosperity, and poverty. Crown Business.
  • Ali, A., Hakim, R. A., & Abdullah, H. (2016). The relationships between higher education and economic growth in Pakistan. Journal of management and training for industries, 3(2), 16-29.
  • Aizenman, J., Jinjarak, Y., & Park, D. (2022). Health expenditures and post-COVID recovery in emerging economies. Journal of Development Economics, 158, 102945. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2022.102945
  • Akıncı, A. (2017). Türkiye’de eğitim harcamalarının ekonomik büyüme üzerindeki etkisi. Maliye Dergisi, 173, 387-397.
  • Altunöz, U. (2020). Sağlık harcamalarının ekonomik büyüme ile ilişkisinin OECD ülkeleri için analizi. Ekonomi Bilimleri Dergisi, 12(1), 85-105.
  • Barro, R. J. (2013). Education and economic growth. Annals of Economics and Finance, 14(2), 301–328.
  • Bayat, T., Tasar, I., & KAYHAN, S. (2017). The validity of efficiency and compensation hypothesis for G7 countries. Ecoforum Journal, 6(2).
  • Becker, G. S. (1964). Human capital: A theoretical and empirical analysis with special reference to education. University of Chicago Press.
  • Bloom, D. E., Canning, D., & Sevilla, J. (2004). The effect of health on economic growth: A production function approach. World Development, 32(1), 1–13.
  • Boussalem, F., Boussalem, Z. & Taiba, A. (2014). The relationship between public spending on health and economic growth in Algeria: Testing for co-integration and casuality. International Journal of Business and Management, 2(3), 25-39.
  • Breusch, T.S., and Pagan, A.R. (1980), The Lagrange multiplier test and its application to model specifications in econometrics. Review of Economic Studies, 47, 239-53
  • Çetin, M. & Doğan, I. (2015). The impact of education and health on economic growth: Evidence from Romania (1980-2011). Romanian Journal of Economic Forecasting, 18(2), 133-147.
  • Demir, A., & Öztürk, S. (2021). Türkiye’de mesleki eğitim ve ekonomik büyüme ilişkisi. İktisat Politikası Araştırmaları Dergisi, 8(2), 45–67.
  • Dinçer, H. & Yüksel, S. (2019). Identfying the casuality relationship between health expenditure and economic growth: An application on E7 countries. Health Systems and Policies Research Center of Istanbul Medipol University Journal of Health Systems and Policies, 1, 5-23.
  • Dudzevičiūtė, G. & Šimelytė, A. (2018). Education and economic development in the selected European Union countries. European Journal of Sustainable Development, 7(2), 14-28.
  • Eberhardt, M., & Bond, S. (2009). Cross-section dependence in nonstationary panel models: a novel estimator cross-section dependence in nonstationary panel models: a novel estimator. MPRA Paper 17692, University Library of Munich, Germany.
  • Eggoh, J., Houeninvo, H., & Sossou, G. A. (2015). Education, health and economic growth in African countries. Journal of Economic Development, 40(1), 93.
  • Emirmahmutoglu, F., & Kose, N. (2011). Testing for granger causality in heterogeneous mixed panels. Economic Modelling, 28(3), 870-876.
  • Erkan, B., Şentürk, M., Akbaş, Y. E., & Bayat, T. (2011). Uluslararası ham petrol fiyatlarındaki volatilitenin işsizlik göstergeleri üzerindeki etkisi: Türkiye örneği üzerine ampirik bulgular. Gaziantep University Journal of Social Sciences, 10(2), 715 -730
  • Goel, R. K., & Gupta, S. (2021). Health infrastructure and industrial growth: Evidence from India. Journal of Policy Modeling, 43(4), 803–818.
  • Hanif, N. & Arshed, N. (2016). Relationship between education and economic growth: SAARC countries. International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues, 6(1), 294-300.
  • Hanushek, E. A., & Woessmann, L. (2012). Do better schools lead to more growth? Journal of Economic Growth, 17(4), 267–321.
  • IMF. (2022). Fiscal monitor: Fiscal policy for the great transformation. International Monetary Fund.
  • Kar, M., ve Taban, S. (2003). Kamu harcama çeşitlerinin ekonomik büyüme üzerine etkileri. Ankara Üniversitesi Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi Dergisi, 58(3), 145-169.
  • Koçyiğit, A., Bayat, T., & Tüfekçi, A. (2011). Türkiye’de işsizlik histerisi ve STAR modellerinin uygulaması. Marmara Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, (2), 45-59.
  • Konat, G., Taş, Ş., & Bayat, T. (2022). Döviz piyasası baskı endeksi ve dolarizasyon arasındaki ilişki: Türkiye örneği. Cumhuriyet Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, 23(2), 575-584.
  • Lucas, R. E. (1988). On the mechanics of economic development. Journal of Monetary Economics, 22(1), 3–42. Mallick, L., Das, P. K., & Pradhan, K. C. (2016). Impact of educational expenditure on economic growth in major Asian countries: Evidence from econometric analysis. Theoretical and Applied Economics, 2(607), 173-186.
  • Mandiefe, P. S. & Tieguhong, C. J. (2017). Health expenditure and economic growth: A review of the literature and an analysis between the economic community for central African States (CEMAC) and selected African countries. Health Economics Review, 7(23), 1-13.
  • Montenegro, F., & Shenai, V. (2019). Government expenditure, economic development and economic growth in Brazil. International Journal of Business Marketing and Management, 4(10), 35-58.
  • Morgan Stanley. (2013). Fragile Five: The evolving economic landscape. Global Economic Forum Report.
  • Mugizi, F. M. P., & Matshaka, T. (2022). The impact of health expenditure on economic growth in South Africa: A threshold analysis. Development Southern Africa, 39(3), 367–382.
  • Odhiambo, N. M. (2021). Education and economic growth in South Africa: An empirical investigation. International Journal of Social Economics, 48(1), 1-16.
  • Oğuz, S., & Yaşar Dinçer, F. C. (2021). OECD ülkelerinde eğitim ve sağlık harcamalarının ekonomik büyüme üzerindeki etkisi. Uluslararası Yönetim İktisat ve İşletme Dergisi, 17(1), 47-62. https://doi.org/10.17130/ijmeb.776845
  • Pesaran, M. H. (2004). General diagnostic tests for cross section dependence in panels. SSRN Working Paper No. 572504. Pesaran, M.H., Ullah, A., Yamagata, T., 2008. A bias-adjusted LM test of error cross section independence. Econometrics Journal 11, 105–127.
  • Rao, P., & Singh, A. (2019). Vocational education and manufacturing productivity: Evidence from India. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 67(4), 879–910.
  • Romer, P. M. (1990). Endogenous technological change. Journal of Political Economy, 98(5), S71–S102.
  • Sağır, M., & Kaplan, S. (2024). Türkiye’de sağlık harcamaları ile ekonomik büyüme ilişkisi. İstanbul Gelişim Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 11(1), 157-175. https://doi.org/10.17336/igusbd.1159671
  • Schultz, T. W. (1961). Investment in human capital. The American Economic Review, 51(1), 1–17.
  • Silva, L. A., Costa, M. F., & Ribeiro, E. P. (2018). Public health spending and regional inequality in Brazil. Health Policy and Planning, 33(8), 925–933.
  • Smith, L. V., Leybourne, S., Kim, T., & Newbold, P. (2004). More powerful panel data unit root tests with an application to the mean reversion in real exchange rates. Journal of Applied Econometrics, 19(2), 147–170.
  • Suhrcke, M., & Urban, D. (2010). Are cardiovascular diseases bad for economic growth? Health Economics, 19(12), 1478–1496. https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.1566
  • Şahbaz, A., Adıgüzel, U., Bayat, T., & Kayhan, S. (2014). Relationship between oil prices and exchange rates: the case of Romania. Economic Computation and Economic Cybernetics Studies and Research/Academy of Economic Studies, 48(2), 245-256.
  • Şentürk, M., Kayhan, S., & Bayat, T. (2016). Küresel Finans Krizi Sonrasında Merkez Bankacılığı Ve Türkiye Cumhuriyet Merkez Bankası. Niğde Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 9(3), 147-160.
  • Wahab, A., Oluwanisola, A. A., Kefeli, Z. & Nurhazirah, H. (2018). Investigating the dynamic effect of healthcare expenditure and education expenditure on economic growth in Organisation of Islamıc Countries (OIC). MPRAPaper, No. 90338.
  • Westerlund, J. (2007). Testing for error correction in panel data. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and statistics, 69(6), 709-748.
  • Westerlund, J. 2008. Panel cointegration tests of the Fisher effect. Journal of Applied Econometrics 23: 193–223
  • Westerlund, J., and Edgerton, D. (2008) A simple test for cointegration in dependent panels with structural breaks, Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 70(5), 665-704.
  • World Bank. (2021). Türkiye'nin insan sermayesi karnesi: Eğitim ve sağlıkta ilerleme ve zorluklar [Dünya Bankası Raporu].
  • Yakışık, H. & Çetin, A. (2014). Eğitim, sağlık ve teknoloji düzeyinin ekonomik büyüme üzerindeki etkisi: ARDL sınır test yaklaşımı. Sosyoekonomi, 21(1), 169-186.
  • Yenişehirlioğlu, E., Taşar, İ., & Bayat, T. (2020). Tourism revenue and economic growth relation in Turkey: Evidence of symmetrical, asymmetrical and the rolling window regressions. Journal of Economic Cooperation & Development, 41(2), 1-16.

Kırılgan Beşli Ekonomilerde Eğitim ve Sağlık Harcamalarının Ekonomik Büyüme Üzerindeki Etkisi

Year 2025, Volume: 14 Issue: 1, 354 - 369, 30.06.2025
https://doi.org/10.54282/inijoss.1676008

Abstract

Neo-Klasik iktisadın yakınsama hipotezine yönelik öngörülerinin başarısız olması nedeniyle içsel büyüme modelleri ekonomik büyümeyi açıklamak için alternatif makroekonomik parametrelere yönelmektedir. Söz konusu alternatif makroekonomik parametrelerin içerisinde ise eğitim ve sağlık harcamalarının artırılması ile birlikte toplumun refah seviyesinin ve toplam faktör verimliliğinin artırılması amacı yatmaktadır. Bu çalışmada 2004-2021 yılları arasında kırılgan beşli ülkelerinde eğitim/sağlık harcamalarının ekonomik büyüme üzerine etkisi incelenmektedir. Her üç değişkende yatay kesit bağımlılığı ve düzey değerinde birim köke sahiptir. Kısa dönemde eğitim/sağlık harcamaları ile ekonomik büyüme arasında karşılıklı, eğitim harcamalarından sağlık harcamalarına doğru nedensellik tespit edilmektedir. Hata düzeltme katsayılarına göre sağlık harcamalarının büyüme üzerinde etkisinin daha uzun dönemde ortaya çıktığı ve hasıla döngülerinden daha az etkilendiği görülmektedir. Ülke bazında ise yalnızca Güney Afrika’da sağlık harcamalarından, Brezilya ve Güney Afrika’da eğitim harcamalarından hasılaya doğru nedensellik bulunmaktadır. Son olarak hiçbir ekonomide hasıladan sağlık harcamalarına doğru nedensellik yokken, yalnızca Türkiye’de hasıladan eğitim harcamalarına doğru nedensellik bulunmaktadır. Bu nedenle Brezilya’da sosyal transferlerin odak olarak yer aldığı kamu harcamalarının olduğu, Güney Afrika’da tarihsel süreçte yaşadığı eşitsizlikler ve sağlık sorunlarının çözümüne yönelik kamu harcamalarının beşeri sermayenin verimliliğe dönüşünün olduğu, Hindistan ve Endonezya’da yarı saf kamusal mal üretimine yönelik harcamaların verimliliğinin düşük olduğu bulgusuna ulaşılmaktadır. Türkiye’de ise ekonomik refahın eğitime doğrudan yansımadığına yönelik bulgulara rastlanmaktadır.

References

  • Acemoğlu, D., & Robinson, J. A. (2012). Why nations fail: The origins of power, prosperity, and poverty. Crown Business.
  • Ali, A., Hakim, R. A., & Abdullah, H. (2016). The relationships between higher education and economic growth in Pakistan. Journal of management and training for industries, 3(2), 16-29.
  • Aizenman, J., Jinjarak, Y., & Park, D. (2022). Health expenditures and post-COVID recovery in emerging economies. Journal of Development Economics, 158, 102945. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2022.102945
  • Akıncı, A. (2017). Türkiye’de eğitim harcamalarının ekonomik büyüme üzerindeki etkisi. Maliye Dergisi, 173, 387-397.
  • Altunöz, U. (2020). Sağlık harcamalarının ekonomik büyüme ile ilişkisinin OECD ülkeleri için analizi. Ekonomi Bilimleri Dergisi, 12(1), 85-105.
  • Barro, R. J. (2013). Education and economic growth. Annals of Economics and Finance, 14(2), 301–328.
  • Bayat, T., Tasar, I., & KAYHAN, S. (2017). The validity of efficiency and compensation hypothesis for G7 countries. Ecoforum Journal, 6(2).
  • Becker, G. S. (1964). Human capital: A theoretical and empirical analysis with special reference to education. University of Chicago Press.
  • Bloom, D. E., Canning, D., & Sevilla, J. (2004). The effect of health on economic growth: A production function approach. World Development, 32(1), 1–13.
  • Boussalem, F., Boussalem, Z. & Taiba, A. (2014). The relationship between public spending on health and economic growth in Algeria: Testing for co-integration and casuality. International Journal of Business and Management, 2(3), 25-39.
  • Breusch, T.S., and Pagan, A.R. (1980), The Lagrange multiplier test and its application to model specifications in econometrics. Review of Economic Studies, 47, 239-53
  • Çetin, M. & Doğan, I. (2015). The impact of education and health on economic growth: Evidence from Romania (1980-2011). Romanian Journal of Economic Forecasting, 18(2), 133-147.
  • Demir, A., & Öztürk, S. (2021). Türkiye’de mesleki eğitim ve ekonomik büyüme ilişkisi. İktisat Politikası Araştırmaları Dergisi, 8(2), 45–67.
  • Dinçer, H. & Yüksel, S. (2019). Identfying the casuality relationship between health expenditure and economic growth: An application on E7 countries. Health Systems and Policies Research Center of Istanbul Medipol University Journal of Health Systems and Policies, 1, 5-23.
  • Dudzevičiūtė, G. & Šimelytė, A. (2018). Education and economic development in the selected European Union countries. European Journal of Sustainable Development, 7(2), 14-28.
  • Eberhardt, M., & Bond, S. (2009). Cross-section dependence in nonstationary panel models: a novel estimator cross-section dependence in nonstationary panel models: a novel estimator. MPRA Paper 17692, University Library of Munich, Germany.
  • Eggoh, J., Houeninvo, H., & Sossou, G. A. (2015). Education, health and economic growth in African countries. Journal of Economic Development, 40(1), 93.
  • Emirmahmutoglu, F., & Kose, N. (2011). Testing for granger causality in heterogeneous mixed panels. Economic Modelling, 28(3), 870-876.
  • Erkan, B., Şentürk, M., Akbaş, Y. E., & Bayat, T. (2011). Uluslararası ham petrol fiyatlarındaki volatilitenin işsizlik göstergeleri üzerindeki etkisi: Türkiye örneği üzerine ampirik bulgular. Gaziantep University Journal of Social Sciences, 10(2), 715 -730
  • Goel, R. K., & Gupta, S. (2021). Health infrastructure and industrial growth: Evidence from India. Journal of Policy Modeling, 43(4), 803–818.
  • Hanif, N. & Arshed, N. (2016). Relationship between education and economic growth: SAARC countries. International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues, 6(1), 294-300.
  • Hanushek, E. A., & Woessmann, L. (2012). Do better schools lead to more growth? Journal of Economic Growth, 17(4), 267–321.
  • IMF. (2022). Fiscal monitor: Fiscal policy for the great transformation. International Monetary Fund.
  • Kar, M., ve Taban, S. (2003). Kamu harcama çeşitlerinin ekonomik büyüme üzerine etkileri. Ankara Üniversitesi Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi Dergisi, 58(3), 145-169.
  • Koçyiğit, A., Bayat, T., & Tüfekçi, A. (2011). Türkiye’de işsizlik histerisi ve STAR modellerinin uygulaması. Marmara Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, (2), 45-59.
  • Konat, G., Taş, Ş., & Bayat, T. (2022). Döviz piyasası baskı endeksi ve dolarizasyon arasındaki ilişki: Türkiye örneği. Cumhuriyet Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, 23(2), 575-584.
  • Lucas, R. E. (1988). On the mechanics of economic development. Journal of Monetary Economics, 22(1), 3–42. Mallick, L., Das, P. K., & Pradhan, K. C. (2016). Impact of educational expenditure on economic growth in major Asian countries: Evidence from econometric analysis. Theoretical and Applied Economics, 2(607), 173-186.
  • Mandiefe, P. S. & Tieguhong, C. J. (2017). Health expenditure and economic growth: A review of the literature and an analysis between the economic community for central African States (CEMAC) and selected African countries. Health Economics Review, 7(23), 1-13.
  • Montenegro, F., & Shenai, V. (2019). Government expenditure, economic development and economic growth in Brazil. International Journal of Business Marketing and Management, 4(10), 35-58.
  • Morgan Stanley. (2013). Fragile Five: The evolving economic landscape. Global Economic Forum Report.
  • Mugizi, F. M. P., & Matshaka, T. (2022). The impact of health expenditure on economic growth in South Africa: A threshold analysis. Development Southern Africa, 39(3), 367–382.
  • Odhiambo, N. M. (2021). Education and economic growth in South Africa: An empirical investigation. International Journal of Social Economics, 48(1), 1-16.
  • Oğuz, S., & Yaşar Dinçer, F. C. (2021). OECD ülkelerinde eğitim ve sağlık harcamalarının ekonomik büyüme üzerindeki etkisi. Uluslararası Yönetim İktisat ve İşletme Dergisi, 17(1), 47-62. https://doi.org/10.17130/ijmeb.776845
  • Pesaran, M. H. (2004). General diagnostic tests for cross section dependence in panels. SSRN Working Paper No. 572504. Pesaran, M.H., Ullah, A., Yamagata, T., 2008. A bias-adjusted LM test of error cross section independence. Econometrics Journal 11, 105–127.
  • Rao, P., & Singh, A. (2019). Vocational education and manufacturing productivity: Evidence from India. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 67(4), 879–910.
  • Romer, P. M. (1990). Endogenous technological change. Journal of Political Economy, 98(5), S71–S102.
  • Sağır, M., & Kaplan, S. (2024). Türkiye’de sağlık harcamaları ile ekonomik büyüme ilişkisi. İstanbul Gelişim Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 11(1), 157-175. https://doi.org/10.17336/igusbd.1159671
  • Schultz, T. W. (1961). Investment in human capital. The American Economic Review, 51(1), 1–17.
  • Silva, L. A., Costa, M. F., & Ribeiro, E. P. (2018). Public health spending and regional inequality in Brazil. Health Policy and Planning, 33(8), 925–933.
  • Smith, L. V., Leybourne, S., Kim, T., & Newbold, P. (2004). More powerful panel data unit root tests with an application to the mean reversion in real exchange rates. Journal of Applied Econometrics, 19(2), 147–170.
  • Suhrcke, M., & Urban, D. (2010). Are cardiovascular diseases bad for economic growth? Health Economics, 19(12), 1478–1496. https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.1566
  • Şahbaz, A., Adıgüzel, U., Bayat, T., & Kayhan, S. (2014). Relationship between oil prices and exchange rates: the case of Romania. Economic Computation and Economic Cybernetics Studies and Research/Academy of Economic Studies, 48(2), 245-256.
  • Şentürk, M., Kayhan, S., & Bayat, T. (2016). Küresel Finans Krizi Sonrasında Merkez Bankacılığı Ve Türkiye Cumhuriyet Merkez Bankası. Niğde Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 9(3), 147-160.
  • Wahab, A., Oluwanisola, A. A., Kefeli, Z. & Nurhazirah, H. (2018). Investigating the dynamic effect of healthcare expenditure and education expenditure on economic growth in Organisation of Islamıc Countries (OIC). MPRAPaper, No. 90338.
  • Westerlund, J. (2007). Testing for error correction in panel data. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and statistics, 69(6), 709-748.
  • Westerlund, J. 2008. Panel cointegration tests of the Fisher effect. Journal of Applied Econometrics 23: 193–223
  • Westerlund, J., and Edgerton, D. (2008) A simple test for cointegration in dependent panels with structural breaks, Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 70(5), 665-704.
  • World Bank. (2021). Türkiye'nin insan sermayesi karnesi: Eğitim ve sağlıkta ilerleme ve zorluklar [Dünya Bankası Raporu].
  • Yakışık, H. & Çetin, A. (2014). Eğitim, sağlık ve teknoloji düzeyinin ekonomik büyüme üzerindeki etkisi: ARDL sınır test yaklaşımı. Sosyoekonomi, 21(1), 169-186.
  • Yenişehirlioğlu, E., Taşar, İ., & Bayat, T. (2020). Tourism revenue and economic growth relation in Turkey: Evidence of symmetrical, asymmetrical and the rolling window regressions. Journal of Economic Cooperation & Development, 41(2), 1-16.
There are 50 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language English
Subjects Panel Data Analysis, Growth, Public Economy
Journal Section Makaleler
Authors

Tuğçe Taşar Yıldırım 0000-0003-0769-6357

Yavuz Özek 0000-0003-4517-4875

İnci Taşar 0000-0001-8171-7182

Early Pub Date June 26, 2025
Publication Date June 30, 2025
Submission Date April 14, 2025
Acceptance Date June 17, 2025
Published in Issue Year 2025 Volume: 14 Issue: 1

Cite

APA Taşar Yıldırım, T., Özek, Y., & Taşar, İ. (2025). The Impact of Education and Health Expenditures on Economic Growth in Fragile Five Economies. İnönü Üniversitesi Uluslararası Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 14(1), 354-369. https://doi.org/10.54282/inijoss.1676008