An Investigation on the Effects of PECS and Observational Learning in Initiating and Maintenance of Communication among Children with Autism

Year 2016, , 151 - 164, 30.12.2016

Serhat Odluyurt , Özgül Aldemir , Alper Kapan

https://doi.org/10.20489/intjecse.284658

Abstract

The purpose of this research is to identify the
efficacy of PECS provided in gaining of independent communicative initiation
and maintenance skills to children with autism. Population of this research
consisted of six children currently receiving education and diagnosed with
autism during preschool period. To implement observational learning procedure,
children were grouped as pairs. To that end, during the first and second phases
of PECS three autistic children received training on the skills of independent
communicative initiation and maintenance. The remaining three autistic children
for whom direct teaching was not the objective the objective was to measure to
what extent they learned the skills they had observed. Dependent variable of
this study is independent communicative initiation and maintenance. Independent
variables of the study are implementing the first and second phases of PECS. In
the course of interventions generalization data were collected as pre-test and
post-test by different implementers and settings. Data of the research were
analyzed graphically and efficacy of each single implementation showed no
differentiation for the learner nor observer children at the acquisition phase.
It did not differ at the phase of permanence and generalization neither. For
collecting social validity data, semi-structured interviews were conducted
among mothers and fathers and data were analyzed descriptively Mothers-fathers
reported that both PECS and observational learning were significant for their
children and that peer observation significantly contributed to children with
autism.

Keywords

Autism, PECS (Picture Exchange Communication System), Observational Learning, Single-Subject Design

References

• Adams-Hill, D., & Flores, M. M. (2014). Comparing the picture exchange communication system and the Ipad for communication of students with autism spectrum disorder and developmental delay. TechTrends, 58(3), 45-53.
• Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
• Bondy, A., & Frost, L. (2001). The picture exchange communication system. Behavior Modification, 25(5), 725-744
• Boutot, E. A., & Myles, B. S. (2011). Autism spectrum disorder: Foundations, characteristics, and effective strategies. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
• Campbell, M. L., & Mechling, L. C. (2009). Small group computer-assisted instruction with smart board technology: An investigation of observational and incidental learning of nontarget information. Remedial and Special Education, 30(1), 47-57.
• Carre, A. J. M., Le Grice, B. L., Blampied, N. M., & Walker, D. (2009). Picture Exchange Communication (PECS) training for young children: Does training transfer at school and to home? Behaviour Change, 26(1), 54-65.
• Charlop-Christy, M., Carpenter, M., Le, L., LeBlanc, L., & Kellet, K. (2002). Using the Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) with children with autism: Assessment of PECS acquisition, speech, social-communicative behavior, and problem behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 35, 213–231.
• Christensen, A., Lignugaris-Kraft, B., & Fiechtl, B. J. (1996). Teaching pairs of preschoolers with disabilities to seek adult assistance in response to simulated injuries: Acquisition and promotion of observational learning. Education & Treatment of Children, 19, 3-18.
• Collins, B. C., Gast, D. L., Ault, M. J., & Wolery, M. (1991). Small group instruction: Guidelines for teachers of students with moderate to severe handicaps. Education and Training in Mental Retardation, 21, 18-32.
• Corbett, B. A. (2003). Video modeling: A window into the word of autism. The Behavior Analyst Today, 4, 367-377.
• Cummings, A. R., Carr, J. E., & Le Blanc, L. A. (2012). Experimental evaluation of the training structure of the Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS). Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 6(1), 32-45.
• Diken, I. H., Ardic, A., Diken, O, & Gilliam, J. E. (2012). Exploring validity and reliability of Turkish Version of Gilliam Autism Rating Scale-2. Education and Science, 37(166), 318-328.
• Dogoe, M. S., Banda, D. R., & Lock, R. H. (2010). Acquisition and generalization of the Picture Exchange Communication System behaviors across settings, persons, and reinforcer classes with three students with autism. Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 45(2), 216-229.
• Egel, A. L., Richman, G., & Koegel, R. L. (1981). Normal peer models and autistic children’s learning. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 14, 3-12.
• Flippin, M., Reszka, S., & Watson, L. (2010). Effectiveness of the Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) on communication and speech for children with autism spectrum disorders: A meta-analysis. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 19, 178-195.
• Frost, L. A., & Bondy, A. (2002). The picture exchange communication system training manual (2nd ed.). Newark, DE: Pyramid Education Products.
• Ganz, J. B., Bourgeois, B. C., Flores, M. M., & Campos, B. A. (2008). Implementing visually cued imitation training with children with autism spectrum disorders and developmental delays. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 10, 56–66.
• Ganz, J., & Simpson, R. L. (2004). Effects on communicative requesting and speech development of Picture Exchange Communication System in children with characteristics of autism. Journal of Autism and Develop- mental Disorders, 34, 395–409.
• Gillespie-Smith, K., Riby, D. M., Hancock, P. J. B., & Doherty-Sneddon, G. (2014). Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) attend typically to faces and objects presented within their picture communication systems. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 58(5), 459-470.
• Goldstein, H., & Mousetis, L. (1989). Generalized language learning by children with severe mental retardation: Effects of peers’ expressive modeling. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 22, 245-259.
• Greenberg , A. L., Erickson-Tomaino, M., A., & Charlop, M. H. (2012). Assessing generalization of the Picture Exchange Communication System in children with autism. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 24(6), 539-558.
• Greer, R. D., Singer-Dudek, J., & Gautreaux, G. (2006). Observational learning. International Journal of Psychology, 41, 486–499.
• Hart, S. L., & Banda, D. R. (2010) Picture Exchange Communication System with ındividuals with developmental disabilities: A meta- analysis of single subject studies. Remedial and Special Education, 31(6) 476–488.
• Ihrig, K., & Wolchik, S. A. (1988). Peer versus adult models and autistic children’s learning: Acquisition, generalization, and maintenance. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 18(1), 67–79.
• Jurgens, A., Anderson, A., & Moore, D. W. (2009). The effect of teaching pecs to a child with autism on verbal behaviour, play, and social functioning. Behaviour Change, 26(1), 66-81.
• Kamps, D., Walker, D., Locke, P., Delquardia, J., & Hall, R. V. (1990). A comparison of instructional arrangement for children with autism served in a public school setting. Education & Treatment of Children, 13, 197-216.
• Kennedy, C. H. (2005). Single-Case Designs for Educational Research. USA: Pearson.
• Kravits, T. R., Kamps, D. M., Kemmerer, K., & Potucek, J. (2002). Brief report: Increasing communication skills for an elementary-aged student with autism using the picture exchange communication system. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 32, (3), 225-230.
• Ledford, J. R., & Wehby, J. E. (2015). Teaching children with autism in small groups with students who are at-risk for academic problems: Effects on academic and social behaviors. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45, 1624-1635.
• Pereira-Delgado, J., & Greer, R. D. (2009). The effects of peer monitoring training on the emergence of the capability to learn from observing instruction received by peers. The Psychological Record, 59, 407–434.
• Plavnick, J. B., & Hume, K. A. (2014). Observational learning by individuals with autism: A review of teaching strategies. Autism, 18, 458–466.
• Preston, D., & Carter, M. (2009). A Review of the Efficacy of the Picture Exchange Communication System Intervention. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39(10), 1471-1486.
• Rehfeldt, R. A., Latimore, D., & Stromer, R. (2003). Observational learning and the formation of classes of reading skills by individuals with autism and other developmental disabilities. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 24, 333-358.
• Ross, A. H. & Stevens, K. B. (2003). Teaching spelling of social studies content vocabulary prior to using the vocabulary in inclusive learning environments: An examination of constant time delay, observational learning, and instructive feedback. Journal of Behavioral Education,. 12(4), 287–309.
• Schoen, F. S. & Ogden, S. (1995). Impact of time delay, observational learning and attentional cuing upon word recognition during integrated small-group instruction. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 25(5), 503-519.
• Sigafoos, J., O’Reilly, M. F., Lancioni, G. E., & Sutherland, D. (2014). Augmentative and alternative communication for individuals with autism spectrum disorder and intellectual disability. Current Developmental Disorders Reports,1, 51–57
• Smith, T. (2001). Discrete trial training in the treatment of autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 16, 86–92.
• Sulzer-Azaroff, B., Hoffman, A., Horton, C., Bondy, A., & Frost, L. (2009). The Picture Exchange System (PECS): What do the data say? Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 24, 89–103.
• Taylor, B., & DeQuinzio, J. A. (2012). Observational learning and children with autism. Behavior Modification, 36, 341–360.
• Tekin-Iftar, E., & Birkan, B. (2010). Small group instruction for students with autism: General case training and observational learning. The Journal of Special Education, 44, 50–63.
• Townley-Cochran, D., Leaf, J. B., Taubman, M., Leaf, R., McEachin, J., & Autism Partnership Foundation. (2015). Observational Learning for Students Diagnosed with Autism: A review paper. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 2,262–272.
• Tyron, A. S., & Keane, S. P. (1986). Promoting imitative play through generalized observational learning in autistic like children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 14(4), 537–549.
• Varni, J. W., Lovaas, O. I., Koegel, R. L., & Everett, N. C. (1979). An analysis of observational learning in autistic and normal children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 7, 31-43.
• Venn, M. L., Wolery, M., & Greco, M. (1996). Effects of every-day and every-other-day instruction. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 11(1), 15–28.
• Webber, J., & Scheuermann, B. (2008). Educating students with autism: A Quick start manual. Austin, Texas: Pro-ed.
• Werts, M. G., Caldwell, N. K., & Wolery, M. (1996). Peer modeling of response chains: Observational learning by students with disabilities. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 29(1), 53–66.
• Wilson, K. P. (2013). Teaching social-communication skills to pre-schoolers with autism: Efficacy of video versus in vivo modeling in the classroom. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43, 1819–1831.
• Wong, C., Odom, S. L., Hume, K., Cox, A. W., Fettig, A., Kucharczyk, S., Brock, M. E., Plavnick, J.B., Fleury, V. P., Schultz, T. R. (2013). Evidence-based practices for children, youth and young adults with autism spectrum disorder. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina, Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute, Autism Evidence-Based Practice Review Group.