TEMPERAMENT AND PARENT-CHILD RELATIONSHIP AS PREDICTORS OF PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR OF 60-72-MONTH-OLD CHILDREN

Year 2023, Volume: 12 Issue: 3, 180 - 198, 30.09.2023

Senanur Ebil , Seher Merve Erus

https://doi.org/10.55020/iojpe.1174856

Abstract

This research aims to determine to what extent temperament and parent-child relationship predict the prosocial behaviors of 60-72-month-old children. The study group of the research consists of 313 mothers and 126 fathers. Data analyzes were carried out separately in mother and father groups. "Personal Information Form", "Child Prosocialness Scale", "Short Temperament Scale for Children", "Child-Parent Relationship Scale" were used as data collection tools. Data were analyzed using Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient and multiple regression analysis. The results obtained from the mothers in the study group revealed that approach, persistence, rhythmicity, reactivity which are the child temperament, and negative mother-child relationship together significantly predicted children’s prosocial behaviors. As for the results obtained from the father participants in the study group, it was found that approach, the persistence of the child temperament, and negative father-child relationship together significantly predicted children’s prosocial behaviors. As a result of the study, the importance of the relationship between child temperament and the child-parent relationship with prosocial behaviors was revealed. The findings of the research were discussed in light of the literature and research, and suggestions were presented.‎

Keywords

Prosocial behavior, temperament, parent child relationship, preschool period

Ethical Statement

This research is derived from the first author's master's thesis which is titled as “Temperament and Parent-child Relationship as Predictors of Prosocial Behavior of 60-72-month-old children” and the second author is a supervisor. The ethical approval was obtained from Yıldız Technical University Institute of Social Sciences with the decision numbered 2021.11 dated November 26, 2021. In addition, National Education approval was obtained from the Aydın Provincial Directorate of National Education with the decision numbered 2112070218 dated January 21, 2022. The authors of the study acted in accordance with ethical rules in all processes of the research and there is no conflict of interest between the authors.

References

• Acar, İ. H., Pérez-González, S., Kutaka, T. S., & Yıldız, S. (2019). Difficult temperament and children’s peer relations: the moderating role of quality of parent–child relationships. Early Child Development and Care, 189(13), 2141-2155. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2018.1439941
• Acar, İ. (2013). Predictors of preschool children’s peer interactions: Temperament and prosocial behavior (Unpublished master’s thesis). University of Nebraska, Omaha.
• Akbaba, G. (2017). An investigation of interaction between child temperament and mother behavior in emotion regulation of five and six years old children (Unpublished master’s thesis). İstanbul University, İstanbul.
• Altıntaş, T. T., & Bıçakçı. M. Y. (2017). Analysis Of Chıldren’s Attachment Styles Towards Mothers. ed. I. Koleva, & G. Duman. (Eds.), Educational Research and Practice (p. 265-270). Bulgaria: St. Kliment Ohridski University Press.
• Arı, M., & Yaban, H. (2012). Age and gender differences in social problem solving skills of 9-11 year-old children. Education and Science Journal, 37(164), 189-203.
• Beceren, B., & Özdemir. A. A. (2019). Role of temperament traits and empathy skills of preschool children in predicting emotional adjustment. International Journal of Progressive Education, 15(3), 91-107.
• Brown, G. L., Mcbride, B. R., Bost, K. K., & Shin, N. (2011). Parental involvement, child temperament, and parents’ work hours: Differential relations for mothers and fathers. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 32(6), 313-322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2011.08.004
• Brownell, C. A., Ramani, G. B., & Zerwas, S. (2006). Becoming a social partner with peers: Cooperation and social understanding in one‐and two‐year‐olds. Child development, 77(4), 803-821. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.t01-1-.x-i1
• Brownell, C. A., Svetlova, M., & Nichols, S. (2009). To share or not to share: When do toddlers respond to another's needs?. Infancy, 14(1), 117-130. https://doi.org/10.1080/15250000802569868
• Bureau, J, Martin, J., Yurkowski, K., Schmiedel, S., Quan, J., Moss, E., Audrey-Ann Deneault, A., & Pallanca, D. (2017). Correlates of child–father and child–mother attachment in the preschool years. Attachment & Human Development, 19(2) 130-150. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2016.1263350
• Callueng, C., & Oakland, T. (2014). If you do not know the child’s temperaments you do not know the child. Estudes de Psicologial Campinas, 31(1), 3-13. https://doi.org/10.1590/0103-166X2014000100001
• Caprara, G. V., Barbaranelli, C., Pastorelli, C., Bandura, A., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2000). Prosocial foundations of children’s academic achievement. Psychological Science, 11(4), 302-306. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00260
• Carlo, G., Mestre, M. V., Samper, P., Tur, A., & Armenta, B. E. (2011). The longitudinal relations among dimensions of parenting styles, sympathy, prosocial moral reasoning, and prosocial behaviors. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 35(2),116-124. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025410375921
• Cornell, A. H., & Frick, P. J. (2007). The moderating effects of parenting styles in the association between behavioral inhibition and parent-reported guilt and empathy in preschool children. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 36(3), 305–318. https://doi.org/10.1590/0103-166X2014000100001
• Daniel, E., Madigan, S., & Jenkins, J. M. (2015). Paternal and maternal warmth mativates preschoolers development of prosociality. Journal of Family Psychology, 30(1), 114-124. DOI: 10.1037/fam0000120.
• Deater-Deckard, K., Pike, A., Petrill, S. A., Cutting, A. L., Hughes, C., & O’Connor, T. G. (2001). Nonshared environmental processes in social-emotional development: An observational study of identical twin differences in the preschool period. Developmental Science, 4(2), F1-F6. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-7687.00157
• Diener, M., & Kim, D. Y. (2004). Maternal and child predictors of children’s social competence. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 25(1), 3–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2003.11.006
• Dunfield, K., Kuhlmeier, V. A., O’Connell, L., & Kelley, E. (2011). Examining the diversity of prosocial behavior: Helping, sharing, and comforting in infancy. Infancy, 16(3), 227-247. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7078.2010.00041.x
• Eisenberg, N. (2003). Prosocial Behavior, Empathy, and Sympathy. In M. Bornstein, L. Davidson, C.L.M. Keyes, K. Moore (Eds.), Well-Being: Positive Development Across The Life Course (pp. 253-265) New York: Psychology Press.
• Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R., & Spinrad. T. (2006). Prosocial Development. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), Handbook of Child Psychology: Vol. 3. Social, Emotional, And Personality Development (p. 646-718). New York: Wiley.
• Eisenberg, N., Spinrad, T. L., Taylor, Z. E., & Liew, J. (2019). Relations of inhibition and emotion‐related parenting to young children's prosocial and vicariously induced distress behavior. Child development, 90(3), 846-858. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12934
• Ferreira, T., Cadima, J., Matias, M., Vieira, J. M., Leal, T., & Matos, P. M. (2016). Preschool children’s prosocial behavior: the role of mother– child, father–child and teacher–child relationships. J Child Fam Stud, 25, 1829-1839. DOI 10.1007/s10826-016-0369-x.
• Gay, L. R., Mills, G. E., & Airasian, P. (2009). Educational research competencies for analysis and applications. Pearson Education
• Gür, A. (2016). Investigation of peer relationships and social behaviors of children living in children's homes and children living with their families (Unpublished master’s thesis). Gazi University, Ankara.
• Göktaş, İ., & Gülay Ogelman, H. (2016). The effects of alone and joint the social skills education and family participation programmes on 4-5 years old children’s social skills and motherchild relationship. Hitit Journal of Social Sciences, 9(1), 415-438.
• Gross, J. T., Stern, J. A., Brett, B. E., & Cassidy, J. (2017). The multifaceted nature of prosocial behavior in children: Links with attachment theory and research. Social development, 26(4), 661-678. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12242
• Grusec, J. E., & Davidov, M. (2010). Integrating different perspectives on socialization theory and research: A domain-specific approach. Child Development, 81(3), 687-709. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01426.x
• Grusec, J. E., Davidov, M., & Lundell, L. (2002). Prosocial and helping behavior. In P.S. Craig, C.H. Hart (Eds.), Blackwell Handbook of Childhood Social Development (p. 457-474). NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.
• Gryczkowski, M., Jordan, S. S., & Mercer, S. H. (2018). Moderators of the relations between mothers’ and fathers’ parenting practices and children’s prosocial behavior. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 49(3), 409-419.
• Gustavo, C. (2010). Feelings or cognitions? Moral cognitions and emotions as longitudinal predictors of prosocial and aggressive behaviors. Personality and Individual Differences. 48(8), 872-877. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.02.010
• Hallers-Haalboom, E. T., Mesman, J., Groeneveld, M. G., Endendijk, J. J., van Berkel, S. R., van der Pol, L. D., & BakermansKranenburg, M. J. (2014). Mothers, fathers, sons and daughters: Parental sensitivity in families with two children. Journal of Family Psychology, 28(2), 138-147. DOI: 10.1037/a0036004
• Hastings, P. D., Utendale, W. D., & Sullivan, C. (2007). The socialization of prosocial development. In J. E. Grusec, & P. D. Hastings (Eds.), Handbook of Socialization: Theory and Research (p. 638-664). New York: Guilford Press.
• Hay, D. F., & Cook, K. V. (2007). The transformation of prosocial behavior from infancy to childhood. In C. A. Brownell, & C. B. Kopp (Eds.), Socioemotional Development İn The Toddler Years: Transitions & Transformations (p. 100 131). New York, NY: Guilford.
• Kahraman, H., & Yılmaz Irmak, T. (2019). Children’s temperament and problem behaviors: mediating role of parenting practice. The Journal of Buca Faculty of Education, 48, 15-29.
• Karoğlu, H., & Ünüvar, P. (2017). Chıldren's development characteristics and social skills level of pre-school children. Mehmet Akif Ersoy University Journal of Education Faculty, (43), 231-254. https://doi.org/10.21764/efd.12383
• Kiang, L., Moreno, A. J., & Robinson, J. L. (2004). Maternal preconceptions about parenting predict child temperament, maternal sensitivity, and children’s empathy. Developmental Psychology, 40(6), 1081–1092. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.40.6.1081
• Knafo, A., & Plomin, R. (2006). Parental discipline and affection and children's prosocial behavior: Genetic and environmental links. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(1), 147-164. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.1.147
• Knafo-Noam, A., Uzefovsky, F., Israel, S., Davidov, M., & Zahn-Waxler, C. (2015). The prosocial personality and its facets: genetic and environmental architecture of mother-reported behavior of 7-year-old twins. Frontiers in Psychology, 6. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00112
• Knafo-Noam, A., Vertsberger, D., & Israel, S. (2018). Genetic and environmental contributions to children's prosocial behavior: brief review and new evidence from a reanalysis of experimental twin data. Current Opinion in Psychology, 20, 60-65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.08.013
• Kochanska, G., & Murray, K. T. (2000). Mother-child mutually responsive orientation and conscience development: From toddler to early school age. Child Development, 71(2), 417-431. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00154
• Kumru, A., Carlo, G., & Edwards, C.P. (2005). Relational, cultural, cognitive and affective predictors of prosocial behaviors. Turkish Journal of Psychology, 19(54), 109-125.
• Laible, D. J., Kumru, A., Carlo, G., Streit, C., Selcuk, B., & Sayil, M. (2017). The longitudinal associations among temperament, parenting, and Turkish children’s prosocial behaviors. Child Development, 88(4), 1057-1062. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12877
• Laible, D., Carlo, G., Murphy, T., Augustine, M., & Roesch, S. (2014). Predicting children's prosocial and co‐operative behavior from their temperamental profiles: A person‐centered approach. Social Development, 23(4), 734-752. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12072
• Liszkowski, U. (2005). Human twelve-month-olds point cooperatively to share interest with and helpfully provide information for a communicative partner. Gesture, 5(1), 135-154. https://doi.org/10.1075/gest.5.1.11lis
• Malti, T., & Dys, S. P. (2018). From being nice to being kind: development of prosocial behaviors. Current Opinion in Psychology, 20, 45-49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.07.036
• Malti, T., Eisenberg, N., Kim, H., & Buchmann, M. (2013). Developmental trajectories of sympathy, moral emotion attributions, and moral reasoning: The role of parental support. Social Development, 22(4), 773–793. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12031
• Mathieson, K., & Banerjee, R. (2010). Pre-school peer play: The beginnings of social competence. Educational & Child Psychology, 27(1), 10-20.
• McGinley, M. (2008). Temperament, parenting, and prosocial behaviors: Applying a new interactive theory of prosocial development (Unpublished master’s thesis). University of Nebraska, Lincoln.
• McMillan, J. H., & Schumacher, S. (2006). Research in Education Evidence-based Inquiry. Pearson Education
• Miklikowska, M., Duriez, B., & Soenens, B. (2011). Family roots of empathy-related characteristics: The role of perceived maternal and paternal need support in adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 47(5), 1342–1352. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024726
• Moreno, A. J., Klute, M. M., & Robinson, J. L. (2008). Relational and individual resources as predictors of empathy in early childhood. Social Development, 17(3), 613–637. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2007.00441.x
• Myers, S., & Pianta, R. C. (2008). Developmental commentary: Individual and contextual influences on the student-teacher relationships and children’s early problem behaviors. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 37(3), 600–608. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374410802148160
• Newton, E. K., Laible, D., Carlo, G., Steele, J. S., & McGinley, M. (2014). Do sensitive parents foster kind children, or vice versa? Bidirectional influences between children’s prosocial behavior and parental sensitivity. Developmental Psychology, 50(6), 1808-1816. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036495
• Newton, E.K., Thompson, R. A., Goodman, M. (2016). Individual differences in toddlers’ prosociality: experiences in early relationships explain variability in prosocial behavior. Child Development, 87(6), 1715-1726. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12631
• Obsuth, I., Eisner, M. P., Malti, T., & Ribeaud, D. (2015). The developmental relation between aggressive behaviour and prosocial behaviour: A 5-year longitudinal study. BMC Psychology, 3(1), 16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-015-0073-4
• Önder, A., Balaban Dağal, A. & Bayındır, D. (2018). The predictive effect of preschool children’s temperament characteristics and parenting styles of mothers on ego resiliency level of children. Education And Science, 43(193), 79-90. http://dx.doi.org/10.15390/EB.2018.7044
• Özdemir, A. A., & Budak, K. S. (2019). The role of temperament and self-regulation on predicting children's play behavior. Pamukkale University Journal of Education, 45(45), 78-98. 10.9779/PUJE.2018.223
• Özkan, H. K. (2015). Examination of maternal emotion socialization behaviors, children's self-concept and social problem-solving skills (Unpublished master’s thesis). Gazi University, Ankara.
• Pallant, J. (2011). SPSS survival manual. A step by step guide to data analysis using SPSS. Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin.
• Padilla-Walker, L. M., & Carlo, G. (2014). Prosocial behavior: Past, present, and future. In L.M. Padilla Walker, G. Carlo (Eds.), Prosocial Development: A Multidimensional Approach (p. 3-16). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Pastorelli, C., Lansford, J. E., Luengo Kanacri, B. P., Malone, P. S., Di Giunta, L., Bacchini, D., . . . Sorbring, E. (2016). Positive parenting and children’s prosocial behavior in eight countries. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 57(7), 824–834. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12477
• Prior, M., Sanson, A., Smart, D., & Oberklaid, F. (2000). Pathways from infancy to adolescence: Australian Temperament Project 1983-2000.
• Robinson, E. L., Stgeorge, J., & Freeman, E. E. (2021). A systematic review of father–child play ınteractions and the ımpacts on child development. Children, 8(5), 389. https://doi.org/10.3390/children8050389
• Romano, E., Tremblay, R. E., Boulerice, B., & Swisher, R. (2005). Multilevel correlates of childhood physical aggression and prosocial behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33(5), 565-578.
• Rothbart, M. K., & Bates, J. E. (2006). Temperament. In N. Eisenberg (Vol. Ed.), W. Damon (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Social, Emotional andpersonality development (p. 99–166). New York: Wiley.
• Rubin, K. H., Burgess, K. B., Dwyer, K. M., & Hastings, P. D. (2003). Predicting preschoolers’ externalizing behaviors from toddler temperament, conflict, and maternal negativity. Developmental Psychology, 39(1), 164–176. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.39.1.164
• Ruiz-Ortiz, R., Braza, P., Carrerar, R., & Munoz, J. M. (2017). Differential effects of mother’s and father’s parenting on prosocial and antisocial behavior: child sex moderating. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 26(8), 2182-2190.
• Sanson, A., Hemphill, S. A., & Smart, D. (2004). Connections between temperament and social development: A review. Social Development, 13(1), 142-170. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1467-9507.2004.00261.x
• Sanson, A., Hemphill, S. A., Yağmurlu, B., & McClowry, S. (2011). Temperament And Social Development. In P. K. Smith, C. H. Hart (Eds.), Handbook of Childhood Social Development (p. 227-245). NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.
• Shaw, D. S., Criss, M., Schonberg, M., & Beck, J. (2004). Hierarchies and pathways leading to school-age conduct problems. Development and Psychopathology, 16(3), 483–500.
• Shiner, R., & Caspi, A. (2003). Personality differences in childhood and adolescence: Measurement, development, and consequences. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, 44(1), 2-32. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00101
• Smetana, J. G., Tasopoulos-Chan, M., Gettman, D. C., Villobos, M., Campione-Barr, N., & Metzger, A. (2009). Adolescents’ and parents’ evaluations of helping versus fulfilling personal desires in family situations. Child Development. 80(1), 208-294. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01259.x
• Song, J. H., Colasante, T., & Malti, T. (2018). Helping yourself helps others: Linking children’s emotion regulation to prosocial behavior through sympathy and trust. Emotion, 18(4), 518-527. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000332
• Spinrad, T. L., & Stifter, C. A. (2006). Toddlers’ empathy-related responding to distress: Predictions from negative emotionality and maternal behavior in infancy. Infancy, 10(2), 97-121. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327078in1002_1
• Spinrad, T. L., &. Gal, D. E. (2018). Fostering prosocial behavior and empathy ın young children. Current Opinion in Psychology, 20, 40-44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.08.004
• Sroufe, L. A., Coffino, B., & Carlson, E. A. (2010). Conceptualizing the role of early experience: Lessons from the Minnesota longitudinal study. Developmental Review, 30(1), 36-51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.002
• Stright, A. D., Cranley Gallagher, K., & Kelley, K. (2008). Infant temperament moderates relations between maternal parenting in early childhood and children’s adjustment in first grade. Child Develoment, 79(1), 186-200. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01119.x Svetlova, M., Nichols, S. R., & Brownell, C. A. (2010). Toddlers’ prosocial behavior: From instrumental to empathic to altruistic helping. Child Development, 81(6),1814–1827. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01512.x
• Taylor, Z. E., Eisenberg, N., Spinrad, T. L., Eggum, N. D., & Sulik, M. J. (2013). The relations of ego-resiliency and emotion socialization to the development of empathy and prosocial behavior across early childhood. Emotion, 13(5), 822 831. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032894
• Teke, N., & Şen, M. (2022). An investigation of the relationship among gender, social Behavior, temperament characteristics and false belief performances in preschool children. Cumhuriyet International Journal of Education, 11(1), 11-25. https://doi.org/10.30703/cije.885512
• Van Tongeren, D. R., Green, J. D., Davis, D.E., Hook, J. N., & Hulsey, T. L. (2016). Prosociality enhances meaning in life. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 11(3), 225-236. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2015.1048814
• Warneken, F., & Tomasello, M. (2006). Altruistic helping in human infants and young chimpanzees. Science, 311(5765), 1301–1303. DOI: 10.1126/science.1121448
• Warneken, F., & Tomasello, M. (2007). Helping and cooperation at 14 months of age. Infancy, 11(3), 271–294 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7078.2007.tb00227.x
• Warneken, F., & Tomasello, M. (2013). Parental presence and encouragement do not influence helping in young children. Infancy, 18(3), 345-368. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7078.2012.00120.x
• Yagmurlu, B., & Altan, O. (2010). Maternal socialization and child temperament as predictors of emotion regulation in Turkish preschoolers. Infant and Child Development: An International Journal of Research and Practice, 19(3), 275-296. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.646
• Yağmurlu, B., & Sanson, A. (2009). Parenting and temperament as predictors of prosocial behaviour in Australian and Turkish Australian children. Australian Journal of Psychology. 61(2), 77-88. https://doi.org/10.1080/00049530802001338
• Yağmurlu, B., Sanson, A., & Köymen, S. B. (2005). Effects of parenting and child temperament on the development of prosocial behavior: The mediating role of theory of mind. Turkish Journal of Psychology, 20(55), 1-20.
• Yaşar Ekici, F. (2015). Okul öncesi eğitime devam eden çocukların sosyal becerileri ile aile özellikleri arasındaki ilişkinin incelenmesi [Investigating the relationship between social skills and family characteristics of the children that attending pre-school education]. The Black Sea Journal of Social Sciences, 7(2). Retrieved from https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/ksbd/issue/16219/169878
• Yazıcı, Z., & Salıkutluk Y. Z. (2018). Ebeveynlerin prososyal davranışlarıyla çocukların prososyal davranışları arasındaki ilişki [The relationship between prosocial behaviors of children and prosocial behaviors of parents]. Sosyal, Beşerî ve İdari Bilimlerde Akademik Araştırmalar, 3, 411-427.
• Yiğit, K., Esin Sezgin, M., & Yağcı, F. (2020). Okul öncesi eğitim kurumuna devam eden çocukların mizaç özellikleri ve öz düzenleme becerilerinin incelenmesi [Examination of temperament characteristics and self-regulation skills of children attending preschool institutions]. Karaelmas Journal of Educational Sciences, 8(2), 318-332.
• Youngblade, L. M., & Mulvihill, B. A. (1998). Individual differences in homeless preschoolers' social behavior. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 19(4), 593-614. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0193-3973(99)80057-4
• Qian, G., Chen, X., Jiang, S., Guo, X., Tian, L., & Dou, G. (2020). Temperament and sibling relationships: The mediating effect of social competence and behavior. Current Psychology, 41, 6147-6153. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144 020 01080-w
• Zahn-Waxler, C., Radke-Yarrow, M., Wagner, E., & Chapman, M. (1992). Development of concern for others. Developmental Psychology, 28(1), 126-136. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.28.1.126
• Zhao, S. (2009). The research on the fine art’s teaching model about raising the childens’ prosocial behaviors on the style stage (Unpublished master’s thesis). South China Normal University. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.